Conservation of pteridophytes in São Tomé e Príncipe (Gulf of Guinea)

Twenty-two pteridophytes (13 endemic and 9 non-endemic) from São Tomé e Príncipe (Gulf of Guinea) are evaluated as regards their rarity and conservation status. IUCN Red List Categories are assigned to these taxa. Eight taxa are Critically Endangered (CR), eleven taxa are Vulnerable (VU) and three taxa are Endangered (EN). Specific measures to conserve these rare pteridophytes are outlined.     

The peopling of São Tomé (Gulf of Guinea): origins of slave settlers and admixture with the Portuguese

The geographic origins of African slave settlers and the Portuguese genetic contribution to the population of S?o Tomé (Gulf of Guinea) were assessed through the analysis of beta-globin haplotypes in 44 chromosomes bearing the betaS allele and through the study of the genetic variation in eight autosomal markers (APOA1, AT3, FY, LPL, OCA2, RB1, Sb19.3, and GC) informative for admixture in a sample of 224 individuals. The observed betaS haplotype distribution (36.4% Bantu, 52.3% Benin, 4.5% Cameroon, 4.5% Senegal, and 2.3% atypical) is in accordance with the historical information on the major geographic sources of slave settlers of S?o Tomé, although it captures a more important contribution of Central-West Africa regions than previously anticipated. European admixture, estimated to be 10.7 +/- 0.9%, has created a considerable level of genetic structure, as indicated by the finding of significant linkage disequilibrium between 33% of unlinked marker loci pairs. Recent admixture was found to have an important contribution to these values, since removal of individuals with Portuguese or Cape Verdian parents or grandparents from the sample dropped the miscegenation level to 6.5 +/- 0.8% and reduced significant linkage disequilibrium to 11% of unlinked marker pairs. Taken together, these results indicate that the peopling of S?o Tomé might have provided one of the first examples of the combination of diverse African contributions and European admixture that emerged from the overseas population relocations promoted by the Atlantic slave trade.     

Echinodermata from São Sebastião Channel (São Paulo, Brazil)

Faunal inventories are extremely important, especially when focused on neglected groups, such as echinoderms, and concentrated on areas under intense anthropic activity such as the SAo Sebastilo Channel in Brazil (23 degrees 41' - 23 degrees 54' S and 45 degrees 19' - 45 degrees 30' W). Intertidal and upper sublittoral zone collections were performed at five sites of the Channel's continental margin from May to August 2001. The rocky substrate down to 19 m deep was surveyed by snorkeling and SCUBA diving from August 2002 to May 2004, on both margins of the Channel: continental (14 sites) and insular (10 sites). We report a total of 38 species of echinoderms (one Crinoidea, nine Asteroidea, 13 Ophiuroidea, nine Echinoidea and six Holothuroidea). Seven of those species have been recorded here for the first time for the Channel (four Asteroidea, two Ophiuroidea and one Echinoidea).     

The biodiversity and conservation of the birds of São Tomé and Príncipe

At present the majority of the endemic bird species occurring on São Tomé and Príncipe remain common, the rarer species being those largely confined to primary rainforest. In 1990 the dwarf olive ibis (Bostrychia bocagei), São Tomé fiscal shrike (Lanius newtoni), São Tomé short-tail (Amaurocichla bocagii) were rediscovered and in 1991 the São Tomé grosbeak (Neospiza concolor) was seen for the first time since 1888. Lowland primary forest is the only habitat on São Tomé in which all the endemic species are found. Primary forest on Príncipe remains largely unsurveyed since the beginning of the century. Due to the decline in the cocoa industry and poor infra-structure post-independence the extent of secondary forest is probably at its greatest since the late 1800s. This habitat is an important buffer zone against development for the remaining primary forest and also contains important populations of many of the endemic species, in particular the São Tomé scops owl (Otus hartlaubi), São Tomé oriole (Oriolus crassirostris) and giant weaver (Ploceus grandis). On both islands the remaining areas of primary forest need immediate protection and suitable boundaries have been designated under the Zona Ecológica plan. Fortunately, except for an important area around Lagôa Amélia, primary forest is not under immediate threat, although a variety of pressures are likely to increase. In conjunction with the protection of primary forest, a plant for managing the remaining timber resource on the islands will be a vital requirement, particularly if areas of shade forest, an important habitat for endemic bird species and a potentially valuable economic resource, are to be conserved and sustainably managed.     

Environmental variables and intertidal beach annelids of São Sebastião Channel (State of São Paulo,Brazil)

Benthic annelid communities were studied during a one-year period (August/95 to July/96) in two sectors of the beaches Engenho d'Agua and S?o Francisco, S?o Sebasti?o Channel (S?o Paulo, Brazil), where the substrate is composed by a mixture of sand and rock fragments. Abiotic parameters such as salinity of interstitial water and sediment properties were used to characterize the environment. The polychaetes were well represented in the two sectors and their distribution was related with sediment type. The density of individuals and the number of taxa was higher at S?o Francisco, while the diversity and the evenness were higher at Engenho d'Agua. This difference can be a consequence of organic enrichment caused by domestic input, and of the lower and more variable salinity at S?o Francisco. Due to these factors, the high density of opportunistic species, like Capitella capitata ssp., Scolelepis squamata, Laeonereis acuta and several oligochaetes, represented 75.5% of total abundance at this sector.     

Aphids (Hemiptera: Aphidoidea) of ornamental plants from São Carlos,São Paulo state,Brazil

A total of 25 aphid species were collected from 49 ornamental plant species in S?o Carlos-S?o Paulo, Brazil; 12 aphids were monophagous, four oligophagous and nine polyphagous. A total of 58 aphid-plant associations are recorded, 43 unknown from Brazil. Eucarazzia elegans (Ferrari, 1872) (Aphididae: Aphidinae: Macrosiphini) is recorded for the first time from Brazil, and Nectandra megapotamica Spreng. (Lauraceae) is recorded for the first time as host plant for Lizerius tuberculatus (E.E. Blanchard, 1939) (Drepanosiphidae: Drepanosiphinae: Lizeriini). We also describe the injuries caused by aphids to the ornamental plants.     

Pseudomonads from wild free-living sea turtles in Príncipe Island,Gulf of Guinea

Dissemination of antibiotic resistance is a major concern, especially in aquatic environments, where pollution contributes for resistant bacteria selection. These strains may have serious health implications, especially for endangered species, including the sea turtles’ hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata and green turtles Chelonia mydas.We aimed to evaluate the presence of antibiotic resistant pseudomonads in wild sea turtles from Príncipe Island, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea Gulf. Isolates were obtained from oral and cloacal swabs of free-living turtles by conventional techniques. Pseudomonads screening was performed by multiplex-PCR (oprI/oprL) and biochemical identification and antibiotic resistance profiling were achieved using Vitek2. All pseudomonad isolates were genotyped by Rep-PCR.Thirteen isolates were oprI-positive and classified as pseudomonads, eight from the genus Pseudomonas with the species P. aeruginosa, P. stutzeri, and P. mendocina, and five co-isolated Alcaligenes faecalis. The P. aeruginosa isolate was also oprL-positive. Regarding isolates susceptibility profile, 38.5% were susceptible to all antibiotics tested, and multidrug resistant (MDR) strains were not identified. DNA fingerprinting did not show any specific clonal-cluster similarity.Data on the worldwide incidence of antibiotic resistance among wildlife is still very scarce, especially concerning remote tropical areas. Since Pseudomonas genus has emerged as a group of increasingly reported opportunistic microorganisms in human and veterinary medicine with high resistance levels, it could be used as a tool for environmental resistance surveillance, particularly considering their ubiquity.     

Brazilian Plecoptera 6. Gripopteryx from Campos do Jordão,State of São Paulo (Gripopterygidae)

Gripopteryx from the Mantiqueira Mountains (South‐eastern Brazil), especially from Campos do Jordão, State of São Paulo, are considered. For G. cancellata (Pictet), G. reticulata Brauer, and G. garbei Navás new data and figures of adults are presented, and the nymphs are described. G. juetah sp.n., and G. pilosa sp.n. are described.     

Male size does not affect mating success (of Anopheles gambiae in São Tomé)

Abstract For malaria control, the utility of transgenic vector Anopheles mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) refractory to Plasmodium transmission, will depend on their interbreeding with the wild vector population. In many species, larger males are more successful in obtaining mates. In São Tomé island, we determined that size did not affect mating success of male Anopheles gambiae Giles sensu stricto, the main malaria vector in tropical Africa. Also we showed that larval intraspecific competition is probably insignificant in this population of An. gambiae. Thus, the potential success of transgenic An. gambiae is unlikely to be affected by size selection under field conditions.     

Haplotype analysis of the apolipoprotein E and apolipoprotein C1 loci in Portugal and São Tomé e Príncipe (Gulf of Guinea): linkage disequilibrium evidence that APOE*4 is the ancestral APOE allele

The joint distributions of phenotypes from the apolipoprotein E gene (APOE) and from a closely linked restriction site polymorphism at the apolipoprotein C1 locus (APOC1) were studied in population samples from Portugal and S?o Tomé e Príncipe (Gulf of Guinea), a former Portuguese colony that was originally populated by slaves imported from the African mainland. The frequencies of the APOE alleles (*2, *3, and *4) in Portugal and S?o Tomé fitted the ranges of variation generally observed in European and African populations, respectively. Haplotype analysis showed that in both populations the strength of linkage disequilibrium was highest for the APOE*2 allele and lowest for the APOE*4 allele, suggesting that the origin of the APOE alleles followed a 4-->3-->2 pathway and thus providing independent confirmation of the results from sequence homology studies with nonhuman primates. In accordance with global trends in the distribution of human genetic variation, the European sample from Portugal presented more intense linkage disequilibrium between APOE and APOC1 than the African sample from S?o Tomé where, despite the short 4-kb distance that separates the 2 loci, the level of association between the APOC1 alleles and APOE*4 was nonsignificant.     

Isolation of Toxoplasma gondii from capybaras (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris) from São Paulo State, Brazil

The capybara (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris) is a large rodent used for human consumption in certain areas of South America. In the present study, viable Toxoplasma gondii was isolated for the first time from this host. Antibodies to T. gondii were assayed in the sera of 64 capybaras from 6 counties of S?o Paulo State, Brazil, using the modified agglutination test (MAT, > or =1:25 dilution) and the indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT, > or =1:16 dilution), and antibodies were found in 48 (75%) by MAT, and 49 (76.6%) by IFAT. Samples of brain, heart, and tongue of 40 seropositive capybaras were pooled, digested in pepsin, and bioassayed in mice. Toxoplasma gondii was isolated from tissue homogenates of 36 capybaras, and the isolates were designated TgCyBrl-36. Most isolates were lethal to mice; 17 of the 36 isolates killed 100% of infected mice, 11 isolates caused mortality in 25-90% of infected mice, and 8 isolates were nonpathogenic to mice. Results indicate that asymptomatic capybaras can harbor mouse-virulent T. gondii, and hence they can serve as a source of infection for humans.     

Population structure of São Miguel Island, Azores: a surname study

The knowledge of a population structure may constitute a powerful tool for mapping genes underlying susceptibility to Mendelian and complex diseases. To obtain a better understanding of the population structure of S?o Miguel Island (Azorean Archipelago, Portugal), we carried out a surname survey using the surnames listed in the most recent telephone book (2001). We identified 1315 different surnames in a total of 27,621 subscribers. The frequency of the different surnames was used to calculate the following parameters: isonymy (I), random component of inbreeding (FST), genetic diversity according to Fisher (alpha), migration rate according to Karlin-McGregor (v) and Nei's genetic distance. Eleven localities were selected, according to population size and geographic distribution, for analysis using the above parameters. Our results show that 51% of Salga's population and 52% of Sete Cidades's population are represented by six and eight surnames, respectively. These figures demonstrate the effective isolation of these two small places, which are located at opposite ends of S?o Miguel Island. Salga, Achada, and Sete Cidades present the lowest values of Fisher's alpha, indicating less genetic diversity. In contrast, the capital, Ponta Delgada, presents the highest value of alpha (78.13), indicating more genetic diversity. Our data indicate that the clustering of the localities corresponds to the geographic features of the island, where localities close together tend to share similar surnames. In conclusion, the population of S?o Miguel is relatively homogeneous and may constitute an ideal model for genetic mapping studies.     

Genetic structure of Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) in São Tomé and Príncipe (West Africa): implications for malaria control

The impact of a vector eradication programme, conducted in the 1980s, on Anopheles gambiae populations from the islands of São Tomé and Príncipe, was evaluated by microsatellite DNA analysis. Significant genetic differentiation was observed within and between the two islands and between the islands and a population from Gabon, suggesting a degree of isolation between them. Large estimates of long‐term N_e suggested that the control programme did not affect the effective population size of the vector. Heterozygosity tests were also not consistent with a recent bottleneck.     

A new species of Cyclopogon (Orchidaceae: Spiranthinae) from São Paulo, Brazil

Cyclopogon carinianus, a new orchid species native to seasonal semideciduous forests in the State of São Paulo, Brazil, is described and illustrated. The relationship of C. carinianus to other taxa of the genus is discussed, and comments on their geographical distribution, ecology, and conservation status are provided.     

A new species of Spauligodon (Nematoda: Oxyurida: Pharyngodonidae) in geckos from São Nicolau Island (Cape Verde) and its phylogenetic assessment

A new nematode species, Spauligodon nicolauensis n. sp., is described from geckos Tarentola bocagei and Tarentola nicolauensis on the island of S?o Nicolau, Cape Verde. The new nematode was found in the pellets obtained directly from the geckos in a non-invasive fashion, and its identity was assessed both at morphologic and genetic levels. The new species has morphological similarities with Spauligodon tarentolae Spaul, 1926, also parasitizing geckos from the Canary Islands. However, the male cloacal region in the new species is distinct, presenting a different shape of the caudal papillae. The overall resemblance probably resulted from colonization via descent from an ancestor of S. tarentolae carried by the ancestor of Cape Verde Tarentola. The analysis of nuclear DNA sequences confirms that the new species is phylogenetically distinct from all other Spauligodon species already analyzed, forming a group clearly separated from species parasitizing lacertid lizards. The COI genetic distance suggests that the S. nicolauensis n. sp. found in the 2 species of geckos in S?o Nicolau Island may have resulted from a host-switching event, when they came into contact after the unification of the island.     

Occurrence of Methanogenic Archaea in Highly Polluted Sediments of Tropical Santos–São Vicente Estuary (São Paulo, Brazil)

Little is known about the ability of methanogens to grow and produce methane in estuarine environments. In this study, traditional methods for cultivating strictly anaerobic microorganisms were combined with Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technique to enrich and identify methanogenic Archaea cultures occurring in highly polluted sediments of tropical Santos–São Vicente Estuary (São Paulo, Brazil). Sediment samples were enriched at 30°C under strict anaerobic and halophilic conditions, using a basal medium containing 2% of sodium chloride and amended with glucose, methanol, and sodium salts of acetate, formate and lactate. High methanogenic activity was detected, as evidenced by the biogas containing 11.5 mmol of methane at 20 days of incubation time and methane yield of 0.138-mmol CH₄/g organic matter/g volatile suspense solids. Cells of methanogenic Archaea were selected by serial dilution in medium amended separately with sodium acetate, sodium formate, or methanol. FISH analysis revealed the presence of Methanobacteriaceae and Methanosarcina sp. cells.     

'A mate or a meal' – Pre-gravid behaviour of female Anopheles gambiae from the islands of São Tomé and Príncipe, West Africa

Background

The spread of drug resistance is making malaria control increasingly difficult. Mathematical models for the transmission dynamics of drug sensitive and resistant strains can be a useful tool to help to understand the factors that influence the spread of drug resistance, and they can therefore help in the design of rational strategies for the control of drug resistance.

Methods

We present an epidemiological framework to investigate the spread of anti-malarial resistance. Several mathematical models, based on the familiar Macdonald-Ross model of malaria transmission, enable us to examine the processes and parameters that are critical in determining the spread of resistance.

Results

In our simplest model, resistance does not spread if the fraction of infected individuals treated is less than a threshold value; if drug treatment exceeds this threshold, resistance will eventually become fixed in the population. The threshold value is determined only by the rates of infection and the infectious periods of resistant and sensitive parasites in untreated and treated hosts, whereas the intensity of transmission has no influence on the threshold value. In more complex models, where hosts can be infected by multiple parasite strains or where treatment varies spatially, resistance is generally not fixed, but rather some level of sensitivity is often maintained in the population.

Conclusions

The models developed in this paper are a first step in understanding the epidemiology of anti-malarial resistance and evaluating strategies to reduce the spread of resistance. However, specific recommendations for the management of resistance need to wait until we have more data on the critical parameters underlying the spread of resistance: drug use, spatial variability of treatment and parasite migration among areas, and perhaps most importantly, cost of resistance.     

Species, dynamics and population composition of phthirapteran in free-range chickens (Gallus gallus L.) in São Luis Island, State of Maranhão

The objective of this work was to identify the phthirapteran species, to determine the prevalence according to the anatomical region of the body and to know the dynamics and composition of the population of these ectoparasites in free-range chicken in S?o Luis Island, state of Maranh?o. Inspection was performed in 40 chickens and feathers were collected from the head, neck, wing, thigh, dorsal and ventral regions and cloacae. The phthirapteran species identified were: Menopon gallinae L., Menacanthus stramineus Nitzsch, Menacanthus pallidulus Neumann, Menacanthus cornutus Schommer (Menoponidae), and Lipeurus caponis L., Goniodes dissimilis Denny and Goniocotes gallinae De Geer (Philopteridae). L. caponis was collected from all regions sampled, including the head, which was the least infested region. The dorsum was the most infested, especially in the dry period of the year and where the greater parasitic diversity was observed, the wing and the head were the least infested regions. Considering the dynamics and the composition of the population the phthirapteran presented a prevalence of 85% of the sampled chickens, the mean intensity of infestation was 45.3 varying from <1 to 453. The egg stage was superior to the others life stages followed by nymphs and female adults, independent of the phthirapteran species.     

Micropropagation of Stryphnodendron polyphythum (Barbatimão)

Stryphnodendron polyphythum Mart., popularly known as Barbatimão, is a native Brazilian tree widely used in folk medicine as a wound healing agent. Cotyledonary node segments were placed on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with different types and concentrations of cytokinins. The medium that gave best shoot proliferation contained 13.3 M 6-benzyladenine (BA). However, MS supplemented with 0.04 M BA and 0.005 M indole-3-acetic-acid enhanced shoot length. Root formation was best on shoots inserted into medium with half-strength macronutrients supplemented with 5.37 M naphthaleneacetic acid and 80 mg 1^–1 phloroglucinol.