质体样细胞器APICOPLAST起源的分子证据评述

顶复合器门的原生动物(Apicomplexan protozoa)含有一个高度退化的质体样(pIastid-like)细胞器,定名为apicoplast.Apicoplast的进化起源是一个长期激烈争论的问题,尽管使用了多种分子技术,但尚未取得一致的结论,以致成为质体起源研究的典型案例.文章评述了apicoplast起源研究的分子证据,分析了新的分子证据的可能来源,为进一步研究提供线索.     

系统发育分析指示细菌向Apicoplast的水平基因转移

顶复合器门的原生动物(Apicomplexan protozoa)含有一个高度退化的质体样(plastid-like)细胞器,定名为apicoplast。来自apicoplast的c／pC基因和它在其他质体和细菌中的同源物用来重建apicoplast的系统发育史。使用邻接法(Neighbor-Joining)、最小进化法(Minimum Evolution)、最大简约法(Maximum Pamimony)和最大似然法(Maximum Likelihood)建立进化树。此外为了避免由于序列之间相似的碱基组成而引起的虚假聚类,建立了基于LogDet距离的核苷酸NJ树;以及为了避免由于在核苷酸和氨基酸水平上的突变饱和而引起的长分枝吸引(Long Branch Attraction,LBA),建立了基于非饱和位点的核苷酸和氨基酸序列的系统发育树。重建结果强有力地支持apicoplast和细菌B．buigorferi之间的单系(monophyly)起源关系,也强化了apicoplasst属于混合基因组的假设,并且提供了对这个混合基因组起源的新的认识。     

王百合质体母系遗传的细胞学机理

王百合质体母系遗传的细胞学机理刘兴梁,胡适宜,尤雅宜（北京大学生命科学学院,北京１０００８７１）（中国科究院植物研究所,北京１０００９３）百合属不同种植物的质体遗传曾报道有单亲母系遗传和双亲遗传两种方式,这些研究有的是根据超微结构的证据。有的只是根据...     

高等植物质体的分裂

质体来源于早期具光合能力的原核生物与原始真核生物的内共生事件。原核起源的蛋白以及真核寄主起源的蛋白共同参与了质体的分裂过程。以原核生物的细胞分裂蛋白为蓝本,近些年在植物中陆续鉴定出几种主要的原核生物细胞分裂蛋白的同源物,如FtsZ、MinD和MinE蛋白。然而,除此之外,原核细胞大多数分裂相关因子在植物中找不到其同源物,但却鉴定了许多真核寄主来源的分裂相关蛋白。当前研究的重点是剖析各种质体分裂蛋白协同作用的机制,业已证明MinD和Mine的协同作用保证了FtsZ（Z）环的正确定位。尽管经典的FtsZ的抑制因子MinC在植物中不存在,但实验表明ARC3在拟南芥中具有类似MinC的功能。ARC3蛋白与真核起源的蛋白如ARC5、ARTEMIS、FZL和PD环以及其它原核起源的蛋白如ARC6和GC1等共同构成了一个复杂的植物质体分裂调控系统。     

《自然-医学》：研究揭示唐氏综合征分子根源

近日来自斯坦福一伯纳姆医学研究所（Sanford-Burnham）的研究人员获得的新证据指向了一个名为SNX27（sortingnexin27）的蛋白。他们发现2l号染色体上编码的一个分子抑制了SNX27生成。     

被子植物花的起源:假说和证据

达尔文的 令人讨厌之谜 ,即被子植物的起源和早期演化 ,一直是植物系统学研究领域的热点 .被子植物区别于其它植物类群的一个显著特征就是花 ,因此 ,解决被子植物的起源之谜很大程度上取决于对被子植物花器官起源的研究 .对被子植物花器官的详尽研究已经在形态、解剖、古植物、形态发生、分子等方面积累了大量的证据 ,植物学家基于这些证据为被子植物花器官的起源提出了各种各样的解释 .综述了迄今为止被子植物花器官起源的主要学说流派 ,如 :真花学说、假花学说、生殖叶学说、生殖茎节学说、生花植物学说、新假花学说、古草本学说和 ANITA学说等 .根据研究手段和获得证据的方式 ,作者将被子植物花器官起源研究划分为 5个阶段 ,并简要阐述了各个阶段的代表学说和主要研究特点     

被子植物花的起源：假说和证据

达尔文的“令人讨厌之谜”,即被子植物的起源和早期演化,一直是植物系统学研究领域的热点。被子植物区别于其它植物类群的一个显著特征就是花,因此,解决被子植物的起源之谜很大程度上取决于对被子植物花器官起源的研究,对被子植物花器官的详尽研究已经在形态、解剖、古植物、形态发生、分子等方面积累了大量的证据,植物学家基于这些证据为被子植物花器官的起源提出了各种各样的解释。综述了迄今为止被子植物花器官起源的主要学说流派,如：真花学说、假花学说、生殖叶学说、生殖茎节学说、生花植物学说、新假花学说、古草本学说和ANITA学说等。根据研究手段和获得证据的方式。作者将被子植物花器官起源研究划分为5个阶段,并简要阐述了各个阶段的代表学说和主要研究特点。     

牵牛属质体DNA的父系遗传

利用限制性片段长度多态性（ＲＦＬＰ）技术研究了牵牛属（Ｐｈａｒｂｉｔｉｓ）植物质体ＤＮＡ 的遗传方式。结果表明,在牵牛（Ｐ． ｎｉｌ）×大花牵牛（Ｐ． ｌｉｍｂａｔａ）和大花牵牛×牵牛中,质体ＤＮＡ 为父系遗传。在大花牵牛×牵牛中,质体ＤＮＡ还有可能为双亲遗传。研究证明牵牛属为被子植物中具有质体父系遗传方式的第三个属。牵牛属质体父系遗传机制尚不清楚,作者认为母系质体及其ＤＮＡ 在受精后的释稀、排除和／或降解可能是质体父系遗传的基础     

PNAS：大规模基因重测序确认亚洲栽培稻起源于中国

美国研究人员在一项通过大规模基因重测序分析稻米进化史的研究中确认,亚洲栽培稻起源于中国,最早可能8000多年前就出现在中国长江流域。亚洲栽培稻是世界上最古老的农作物物种之一。此前曾有研究认为,亚洲栽培稻有两个起源地,印度和中国。但5月2日刊登在美国《国家科学院院刊》（PNAS）一项新研究说：”分子学证据表明（亚洲）栽培稻只有单一起源……最早出现在中国长江流域。”亚洲栽培稻具有籼稻和粳稻两个主要亚种,其起源相应也出现两种理论,其中一种为单一起源理论,即籼稻和粳稻均由野生稻栽培而来;     

王百合及兰州百合细胞质遗传的细胞学研究

描述了王百合（ＬｉｌｉｕｍｒｅｇａｌｅＷｉｌｓ．）及兰州百合（Ｌ．ｄａｖｉｄｉＤｕｃｈ．）质体和线粒体在生殖细胞及精细胞中的分布和细胞质中ＤＮＡ的状况。在刚形成的王百合的生殖细胞中含有少量的质体和大量的线粒体。当生殖细胞游离在营养细胞质中时,质体在生殖细胞中完全退化消失。ＤＡＰＩ荧光技术进一步证明,在成熟花粉、花粉管中的生殖细胞及其分裂形成的两个精细胞中无任何细胞器ＤＮＡ。兰州百合在小孢子分裂时质体严格地极性分布,造成了刚形成的生殖细胞中即无质体。兰州百合、麝香百合（Ｌ．ｌｏｎｇｉｆｌｏｒｕｍＴｈｕｎｂ．）及其杂种的ＲＦＬＰ分析,也证明兰州百合质体是单亲母系传递的。虽然在不同发育时期的生殖细胞及精细胞中可以观察到线粒体,但在雄配子体时期它们的ＤＮＡ已降解,因此雄性线粒体不能被传递至后代。研究结果提供了百合属的这两个种质体和线粒体具母系遗传方式的细胞学证据,并阐明父系细胞质不能作为遗传传递的机理。     

Identification of Plasmodium falciparum apicoplast-targeted tRNA-guanine transglycosylase and its potential inhibitors using comparative genomics,molecular modelling,docking and simulation studies

tRNA modifications play an important role in the proper folding of tRNA and thereby determine its functionality as an adaptor molecule. Notwithstanding the centrality of this basic process in translation, a major gap in the genomics of Plasmodium falciparum is unambiguous identification of enzymes catalysing the various tRNA modifications. In this study, tRNA-modifying enzymes of P. falciparum were annotated using homology-based approach. Based on the presence of these identified enzymes, the modifications were compared with those of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. Through sequence comparison and phylogenetic analysis, we have identified P. falciparum apicoplast tRNA-guanine 34 transglycosylase (TGT, EC: 2.4.2.29), which shows evidence of its prokaryotic origin. The docking analysis of the modelled TGT structures revealed that binding of quinazolinone derivatives is more favourable with P. falciparum apicoplast TGT as compared to human TGT. Molecular dynamic simulation and molecular mechanics/generalized Born surface area analysis of the complex confirmed the greater binding affinity of the ligand in the binding pocket of P. falciparum TGT protein. Further, evolutionary patterning analysis identified the amino acids of P. falciparum apicoplast TGT that are under purifying selection pressure and hence can be good inhibitor-targeting sites. Based on these computational studies, we suggest that P. falciparum apicoplast tRNA-guanine 34 transglycosylase can be a promising drug target.     

Evolution of the apicoplast and its hosts: from heterotrophy to autotrophy and back again

The photosynthetic origin of apicomplexan parasites was proposed upon the discovery of a reduced non-photosynthetic plastid termed the apicoplast in their cells. Although it is clear that the apicoplast has evolved through a secondary endosymbiosis, its particular origin within the red or green plastid lineage remains controversial. The recent discovery of Chromera velia, the closest known photosynthetic relative to apicomplexan parasites, sheds new light on the evolutionary history of alveolate plastids. Here we review our knowledge on the evolutionary history of Apicomplexa and particularly their plastids, with a focus on the pathway by which they evolved from free-living heterotrophs through photoautotrophs to omnipresent obligatory intracellular parasites. New sequences from C. velia (histones H2A, H2B; GAPDH, TufA) and phylogenetic analyses are also presented and discussed here.     

The Plasmodium Apicoplast Genome: Conserved Structure and Close Relationship of P. ovale to Rodent Malaria Parasites

Apicoplast, a nonphotosynthetic plastid derived from secondary symbiotic origin, is essential for the survival of malaria parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Elucidation of the evolution of the apicoplast genome in Plasmodium species is important to better understand the functions of the organelle. However, the complete apicoplast genome is available for only the most virulent human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Here, we obtained the near-complete apicoplast genome sequences from eight Plasmodium species that infect a wide variety of vertebrate hosts and performed structural and phylogenetic analyses. We found that gene repertoire, gene arrangement, and other structural attributes were highly conserved. Phylogenetic reconstruction using 30 protein-coding genes of the apicoplast genome inferred, for the first time, a close relationship between P. ovale and rodent parasites. This close relatedness was robustly supported using multiple evolutionary assumptions and models. The finding suggests that an ancestral host switch occurred between rodent and human Plasmodium parasites.     

Babesia bovis: A comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of plastid-encoded genes supports green algal origin of apicoplasts

Apicomplexan parasites commonly contain a unique, non-photosynthetic plastid-like organelle termed the apicoplast. Previous analyses of other plastid-containing organisms suggest that apicoplasts were derived from a red algal ancestor. In this report, we present an extensive phylogenetic study of apicoplast origins using multiple previously reported apicoplast sequences as well as several sequences recently reported. Phylogenetic analysis of amino acid sequences was used to determine the evolutionary origin of the organelle. A total of nine plastid genes from 37 species were incorporated in our study. The data strongly support a green algal origin for apicoplasts and Euglenozoan plastids. Further, the nearest green algae lineage to the Apicomplexans is the parasite Helicosporidium, suggesting that apicoplasts may have originated by lateral transfer from green algal parasite lineages. The results also substantiate earlier findings that plastids found in Heterokonts such as Odontella and Thalassiosira were derived from a separate secondary endosymbiotic event likely originating from a red algal lineage.     

New comprehension of the apicoplast of Sarcocystis by transmission electron tomography

BACKGROUND INFORMATION: Apicomplexan parasites (like Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Eimeria and Sarcocystis) contain a distinctive organelle, the apicoplast, acquired by a secondary endosymbiotic process analogous to chloroplasts and mitochondria. The apicoplast is essential for long-term survival of the parasite. This prokaryotic origin implies that molecular and metabolic processes in the apicoplast differ from those of the eukaryotic host cells and therefore offer options for specific chemotherapeutic treatment. We studied the apicoplast in high-pressure frozen and freeze-substituted cysts of Sarcocystis sp. from roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) to get better insight in apicoplast morphology. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: We observed that the apicoplast contains four continuous membranes. The two inner membranes have a circular shape with a constant distance from each other and large-sized protein complexes are located between them. The two outer membranes have irregular shapes. The periplastid membrane also contains large-sized protein complexes, while the outer membrane displays protuberances into the parasite cytoplasm. In addition, it is closely associated with the endoplasmic reticulum by 'contact sites'.     

Plasmodium falciparum OTU‐like cysteine protease (PfOTU) is essential for apicoplast homeostasis and associates with noncanonical role of Atg8

The metabolic pathways associated with the mitochondrion and the apicoplast in Plasmodium, 2 parasite organelles of prokaryotic origin, are considered as suitable drug targets. In the present study, we have identified functional role of a novel ovarian tumour unit (OTU) domain‐containing cysteine protease of Plasmodium falciparum (PfOTU). A C‐terminal regulatable fluorescent affinity tag on native protein was utilised for its localization and functional characterization. Detailed studies showed vesicular localization of PfOTU and its association with the apicoplast. Degradation‐tag mediated knockdown of PfOTU resulted in abnormal apicoplast development and blocked development of parasites beyond early‐schizont stages in subsequent cell cycle; downregulation of PfOTU hindered apicoplast protein import. Further, the isoprenoid precursor‐mediated parasite growth‐rescue experiments confirmed that PfOTU knockdown specifically effect development of functional apicoplast. We also provide evidence for a possible biological function of PfOTU in membrane deconjugation of Atg8, which may be linked with the apicoplast protein import. Overall, our results show that the PfOTU is involved in apicoplast homeostasis and associates with the noncanonical function of Atg8 in maintenance of parasite apicoplast.     

Protein trafficking to the plastid of Plasmodium falciparum is via the secretory pathway

The plastid of Plasmodium falciparum (or 'apicoplast') is the evolutionary homolog of the plant chloroplast and represents a vestige of a photosynthetic past. Apicoplast indispensability indicates that it still provides essential functions to parasites. Similar to plant chloroplasts, the apicoplast is dependent on many nucleus-encoded genes to provide these functions. The apicoplast is surrounded by four membranes, two more than plant chloroplasts. Thus, protein targeting to the apicoplast must overcome additional membrane barriers. In P.falciparum we have analyzed apicoplast targeting using green fluorescent protein (GFP). We demonstrate that protein targeting is at least a two-step process mediated by bipartite N-terminal pre-sequences that consist of a signal peptide for entry into the secretory pathway and a plant-like transit peptide for subsequent import into the apicoplast. The P.falciparum transit peptide is exceptional compared with other known plastid transit peptides in not requiring serine or threonine residues. The pre-sequence components are removed stepwise during apicoplast targeting. Targeting GFP to the apicoplast has also provided the first opportunity to examine apicoplast morphology in live P. falciparum.