A Consistent Framework for Assessing the Impacts from Resource Use - A focus on resource functionality (8 pp)

Background The quantification of resource depletion in Life Cycle Assessment has been the topic of much debate; to date no definitive approach for quantifying effects in this impact category has been developed. In this paper we argue that the main reason for this extensive debate is because all methods for quantifying resource depletion impacts have focussed on resource extraction. - Aim and Scope. To further the state of the debate we present a general framework for assessing the impacts of resource use across the entire suite of biotic and abiotic resources. The main aim of this framework is to define the necessary and sufficient set of information required to quantify the effects of resources use. Method logy. Our method is based on a generic concept of the quality state of resource inputs and outputs to and from a production system. Using this approach we show that it is not the extraction of materials which is of concern, but rather the dissipative use and disposal of materials. Using this as a point of departure we develop and define two key variables for use in the modelling of impacts of resource use, namely the ultimate quality limit, which is related to the functionality of the material, and backup technology. Existing methodologies for determining the effects of resource depletion are discussed in the context of this framework. Results We demonstrate the ability of the general framework to describe impacts related to all resource categories: metallic and non-metallic minerals, energy minerals, water, soil, and biotic resources (wild or domesticated plants and animals). Recommendation focus on suggestions for a functionality measure for each of these categories; and how best the two modelling variables derived can be determined.     

WILL BIOMEDICAL ENHANCEMENTS UNDERMINE SOLIDARITY,RESPONSIBILITY, EQUALITY AND AUTONOMY?

Prominent thinkers such as Jurgen Habermas and Michael Sandel are warning that biomedical enhancements will undermine fundamental political values. Yet whether biomedical enhancements will undermine such values depends on how biomedical enhancements will function, how they will be administered and to whom. Since only few enhancements are obtainable, it is difficult to tell whether these predictions are sound. Nevertheless, such warnings are extremely valuable. As a society we must, at the very least, be aware of developments that could have harmful consequences. Indeed, if important values were to be jeopardized, we should take appropriate measures to protect them. This paper focuses on four central values: solidarity, personal responsibility, equality and autonomy. It delineates the conditions under which biomedical enhancements would undermine these values. It also details the circumstances under which these values would be unaffected by enhancements as well as those under which they would be promoted. Specifying these conditions is valuable; it would enable society to prepare appropriate ethical guidelines and policy responses in advance.     

Potential for Worldwide Displacement of Fossil-Fuel Electricity by Nuclear Energy in Three Decades Based on Extrapolation of Regional Deployment Data

There is an ongoing debate about the deployment rates and composition of alternative energy plans that could feasibly displace fossil fuels globally by mid-century, as required to avoid the more extreme impacts of climate change. Here we demonstrate the potential for a large-scale expansion of global nuclear power to replace fossil-fuel electricity production, based on empirical data from the Swedish and French light water reactor programs of the 1960s to 1990s. Analysis of these historical deployments show that if the world built nuclear power at no more than the per capita rate of these exemplar nations during their national expansion, then coal- and gas-fired electricity could be replaced worldwide in less than a decade. Under more conservative projections that take into account probable constraints and uncertainties such as differing relative economic output across regions, current and past unit construction time and costs, future electricity demand growth forecasts and the retiring of existing aging nuclear plants, our modelling estimates that the global share of fossil-fuel-derived electricity could be replaced within 25–34 years. This would allow the world to meet the most stringent greenhouse-gas mitigation targets.     

Auxin Enhancement of mRNAs in Epidermis and Internal Tissues of the Pea Stem and Its Significance for Control of Elongation

The epidermis has been considered the site of auxin action on elongation of stems and coleoptiles. To try to identify mRNAs that might mediate auxin stimulation of cell enlargement, we compared, using in vitro translation assays, mRNA enhancement by indoleacetic acid (IAA) in the epidermis, with that in the internal tissues, of pea (Pisum sativum L., cv Alaska) third internode segments. We used seedlings that had been grown under red light, which enables the epidermis to be peeled efficiently from the internode. Most of the `early' IAA enhancements previously reported using etiolated peas, plus several hitherto undescribed enhancements, occur in both the epidermis and the internal tissue of the light-grown plants after 4 hours of IAA treatment. These enhancements, therefore, do not fulfill the expectation of elongation-specific mRNAs localized to the epidermis. One epidermis-specific IAA enhancement does occur, but begins only subsequent to 1 hour (but before 4 hours) of auxin treatment. Similarly, the previously mentioned IAA enhancements common to epidermis and internal tissue do not begin, in the light-grown plants, within 1 hour of IAA treatment. Since IAA stimulates elongation in light-grown internodes within 15 minutes, it appears that none of these mRNAs can be responsible for auxin induction of elongation. We confirmed, with our methods, the previous reports that some of these mRNAs are enhanced by IAA within 0.5 hour in etiolated internodes. This indicates that we could have detected an early enhancement in light-grown tissue had it occurred.     

Feeding nine billion: the challenge to sustainable crop production

In the recent past there was a widespread working assumption in many countries that problems of food production had been solved, and that food security was largely a matter of distribution and access to be achieved principally by open markets. The events of 2008 challenged these assumptions, and made public a much wider debate about the costs of current food production practices to the environment and whether these could be sustained. As in the past 50 years, it is anticipated that future increases in crop production will be achieved largely by increasing yields per unit area rather than by increasing the area of cropped land. However, as yields have increased, so the ratio of photosynthetic energy captured to energy expended in crop production has decreased. This poses a considerable challenge: how to increase yield while simultaneously reducing energy consumption (allied to greenhouse gas emissions) and utilizing resources such as water and phosphate more efficiently. Given the timeframe in which the increased production has to be realized, most of the increase will need to come from crop genotypes that are being bred now, together with known agronomic and management practices that are currently under-developed.     

Information Technology and U.S. Energy Consumption: Energy Hog,Productivity Tool,or Both?

A significant debate has emerged with respect to the energy requirements of the Internet. The popular literature has echoed a misleading study that incorrectly suggests the growth of the information economy will require huge amounts of new energy resources. Even correcting the misleading assumptions in that study, discussion on this topic tends to result in a highly limited and unsatisfactory review of many larger issues. Although the evidence suggests a relatively small amount of energy is required to power today's information needs—;about 3% of total electricity consumption in the United States—;the complexity and connectivity of the Internet, and, more generally, the information economy, yield a deep uncertainty about the eventual long-term impact on energy consumption. Although we may not yet be able to generalize about the future long-term energy needs associated with the information economy, the evidence points to continuing technical changes and the growing substitution of knowledge for material resources. These interrelated trends will likely generate small decreases in energy intensity and reduce subsequent environmental impacts relative to many baseline projections. Despite these trends, a number of questions need to be addressed before any solid long-term conclusions might be forthcoming. The article reviews some of the dimensions of these possible changes and suggests further directions for research that may help answer these important questions.     

The democratic side of science-fiction

Suspicion towards technological advances has progressively grown during the xx(th) century. However, in the XXI(st) century, reading the NBIC (nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology and cognitive science) report of the National Science Foundation, we can note that science has caught up with science fiction. These changes in public mentality on one side and in scientific capacities on the other argue for an evolution of the debate on sciences. The recent example of the national debate on nanotechnology in France has clearly shown that the public is no longer waiting for additional sources of scientific knowledge but rather waiting for the recognition of its authority to participate in the definition of the national R&D priority and associated scientific strategies. This is all the more legitimate that these strategies will have profound impact on the future of our societies and therefore cannot be decided only by scientists. Hence, it is crucial to identify innovative tools promoting debate on sciences and their technological spin-off. Here, we contend that science fiction has major assets that could face this challenge and facilitate the dialogue between sciences and society.     

When should we save the most endangered species?

At the heart of our efforts to protect threatened species, there is a controversial debate about whether to give priority to cost-effective actions or whether focusing solely on the most endangered species will ultimately lead to preservation of the greatest number of species. By framing this debate within a decision-analytic framework, we show that allocating resources solely to the most endangered species will typically not minimise the number of extinctions in the long-term, as this does not account for the risk of less endangered species going extinct in the future. It is only favoured when our planning timeframe is short or we have a long-term view and we are optimistic about future conditions. Conservation funding tends to be short-term in nature, which biases allocations to more endangered species. Our work highlights the need to consider resource allocation for biodiversity over the long-term; 'preventive conservation', rather than just short-term fire-fighting.     

Spatiotemporal dynamics of the Calvin cycle: multistationarity and symmetry breaking instabilities

The possibility of controlling the Calvin cycle has paramount implications for increasing the production of biomass. Multistationarity, as a dynamical feature of systems, is the first obvious candidate whose control could find biotechnological applications. Here we set out to resolve the debate on the multistationarity of the Calvin cycle. Unlike the existing simulation-based studies, our approach is based on a sound mathematical framework, chemical reaction network theory and algebraic geometry, which results in provable results for the investigated model of the Calvin cycle in which we embed a hierarchy of realistic kinetic laws. Our theoretical findings demonstrate that there is a possibility for multistationarity resulting from two sources, homogeneous and inhomogeneous instabilities, which partially settle the debate on multistability of the Calvin cycle. In addition, our tractable analytical treatment of the bifurcation parameters can be employed in the design of validation experiments.     

Phylogeny versus body size as determinants of food web structure

Food webs are the complex networks of trophic interactions that stoke the metabolic fires of life. To understand what structures these interactions in natural communities, ecologists have developed simple models to capture their main architectural features. However, apparently realistic food webs can be generated by models invoking either predator-prey body-size hierarchies or evolutionary constraints as structuring mechanisms. As a result, this approach has not conclusively revealed which factors are the most important. Here we cut to the heart of this debate by directly comparing the influence of phylogeny and body size on food web architecture. Using data from 13 food webs compiled by direct observation, we confirm the importance of both factors. Nevertheless, phylogeny dominates in most networks. Moreover, path analysis reveals that the size-independent direct effect of phylogeny on trophic structure typically outweighs the indirect effect that could be captured by considering body size alone. Furthermore, the phylogenetic signal is asymmetric: closely related species overlap in their set of consumers far more than in their set of resources. This is at odds with several food web models, which take only the view-point of consumers when assigning interactions. The echo of evolutionary history clearly resonates through current food webs, with implications for our theoretical models and conservation priorities.     

A new Keratella from Patagonia

Hydrobiologia, with which I have had a long association, is celebrating its 50th anniversary in 1998. This year is also the 200th anniversary of Robert Malthus' still hotly debated publication on overpopulation. Readers of Hydrobiologia know well the impacts on the water resource of a growing human population, increased per capita affluence, major industrialization over much of the planet, and the explosion of new technologies that have effects on the water resource. Those concerned with the integrity and condition of water resources should be deeply involved in the debate on the exemption of human society from the biophysical laws of nature and its dependence on the life support services of ecosystems. Arguably, water resources will be the main battleground on which this debate is resolved. This discussion is a preliminary exploration of the primary issues. Even though the word water does not appear frequently in this paper, the connection to our profession and the future of the hydrobiological ecosystem and Hydrobiologia is present in every page.     

农牧交错带系统生产力概念及其对生态重建的意义

论证了黄土高原农牧交错带在全球所有同纬度(39°～41°N)地区中是作物生长盛期内光、温及降水条件组合最好的地带,并以初步的实证和观测支持了这一论点,阐述了通过开发能很好地适应自然条件,特别是能扬长避短,充分利用总体上虽较严酷而局部具有优势的气候资源的“系统生产力”的新思路;中心选择和应用生物量高、水分效率高、覆盖作用好的新作物和相应的种植制度,围绕生物量“为牧而农”式地实行农牧结合;重“料”于粮草,相应改变传统农业的格局,以大幅度地提高黄土高原地区的系统生产力,探索走出一条生态重建和支柱产业协调发展新路的可能性。     

Webalert of waste management

Waste is unwanted or useless material. It is widely recognized that waste materials are valuable resources, whilst there is debate as to how this value is best realized. Re-use, recycling and energy recovery are being applied to regulated wastes. Yet, while recycling and re-use are increasing, the overall amounts of waste are still growing, and there is an increasing demand for primary resources and stress on eco-systems. In this webalert, we will focus on some important websites which provide readers with more informative resources related to waste management.     

Interaction strength and stability in stage‐structured food web modules

There has been a long‐standing debate on what creates stability in food webs. One major finding is that weak interactions can mute the destabilizing potential of strong interactions. Considering that stage structure is common in nature, that existing studies on stability that include population stage structure point in different directions, and the recent theoretical developments in the area of stage structure, there is a need to address the effects of population stage structure in this context. Using simple food web modules, with stage structure in an intermediate consumer, we here begin to theoretically investigate the effects of stage structure on food web stability. We found a general correspondence to previous results such that strong interactions had destabilizing effects and weak interactions that result in decreased energy flux had stabilizing effects. However, we also found a number of novel results connected to stage structure. Interestingly, weak interactions can be destabilizing when they excite other interactions. We also found that cohort cycles and predator–prey cycles did not respond in the same way to increasing interactions strength. We found that the combined effects of two predators feeding on the same prey can strongly destabilize a system. Consistent with previous studies, we also found that stage‐specific feeding can create a refuge effect that leads to a lack of strong destabilization at high interaction strength. Overall, stage structure had both stabilizing and destabilizing aspects. Some effects could be explained by our current understanding of energetic processes; others need additional consideration. Additional aspects such as shunting of energy between stages, control of biomass fluxes, and interactions between lags and energy flux, should be considered.     

Terrestrial biomass resources in Japan

Japan, a small and mountainous country with little fossil fuel, has a variety of biomass resources that could be used to derive energy sources. Many of these resources could be obtained from currently unutilized or waste portions of other products. Important sources of biomass include woodlands, native grasslands, wastelands, and farms. Although much biomass is seasonal and difficult to handle, continued technological advances may allow utilization while at the same time improving the environment.     

Sub-Optimal Allocation of Time in Sequential Movements

The allocation of limited resources such as time or energy is a core problem that organisms face when planning complex actions. Most previous research concerning planning of movement has focused on the planning of single, isolated movements. Here we investigated the allocation of time in a pointing task where human subjects attempted to touch two targets in a specified order to earn monetary rewards. Subjects were required to complete both movements within a limited time but could freely allocate the available time between the movements. The time constraint presents an allocation problem to the subjects: the more time spent on one movement, the less time is available for the other. In different conditions we assigned different rewards to the two tokens. How the subject allocated time between movements affected their expected gain on each trial. We also varied the angle between the first and second movements and the length of the second movement. Based on our results, we developed and tested a model of speed-accuracy tradeoff for sequential movements. Using this model we could predict the time allocation that would maximize the expected gain of each subject in each experimental condition. We compared human performance with predicted optimal performance. We found that all subjects allocated time sub-optimally, spending more time than they should on the first movement even when the reward of the second target was five times larger than the first. We conclude that the movement planning system fails to maximize expected reward in planning sequences of as few as two movements and discuss possible interpretations drawn from economic theory.     

In quest of the nitrogen oxidizing prokaryotes of the early Earth

The introduction of nitrite and nitrate to the relatively reduced environment of the early Earth provided impetus for a tremendous diversification of microbial pathways. However, little is known about the first organisms to produce these valuable resources. In this review, the latest microbial discoveries are integrated in the evolution of the nitrogen cycle according to the great 'NO-ON' time debate, as we call it. This debate hypothesizes the first oxidation of nitrogen as abiotic and anoxic ('NO') versus biological and aerobic ('ON'). Confronting ancient biogeochemical niches with extant prokaryotic phylogenetics, physiology and morphology, pointed out that the well-described ammonia and nitrite oxidizing Proteobacteria likely did not play a pioneering role in microbial nitrogen oxidation. Instead, we hypothesize ancestral and primordial roles of methanotrophic NC10 bacteria and ammonia oxidizing archaea, respectively, for early nitrite production, and of anammox performing Planctomycetes followed by Nitrospira for early nitrate production. Additional genomic and structural information on the prokaryotic protagonists but also on their phages, together with the continued search for novel key players and processes, should further elucidate nitrogen cycle evolution. Through the ramifications between the biogeochemical cycles, this will improve our understanding on the evolution of terrestrial and perhaps extraterrestrial life.     

HUMAN NATURE AND ENHANCEMENT

Appeals to the idea of human nature are frequent in the voluminous literature on the ethics of enhancing human beings through biotechnology. Two chief concerns about the impact of enhancements on human nature have been voiced. The first is that enhancement may alter or destroy human nature. The second is that if enhancement alters or destroys human nature, this will undercut our ability to ascertain the good because, for us, the good is determined by our nature. The first concern assumes that altering or destroying human nature is in itself a bad thing. The second concern assumes that human nature provides a standard without which we cannot make coherent, defensible judgments about what is good.
I will argue (1) that there is nothing wrong, per se, with altering or destroying human nature, because, on a plausible understanding of what human nature is, it contains bad as well as good characteristics and there is no reason to believe that eliminating some of the bad would so imperil the good as to make the elimination of the bad impermissible, and (2) that altering or destroying human nature need not result in the loss of our ability to make judgments about the good, because we possess a conception of the good by which we can and do evaluate human nature. I will argue that appeals to human nature tend to obscure rather than illuminate the debate over the ethics of enhancement and can be eliminated in favor of more cogent considerations.     

Does consciousness overflow cognitive access? Novel insights from the new phenomenon of attribute amnesia

The moment we open our eyes, we experience a rich and detailed visual world, but the amount of information available to report is rather limited. This dissociation relates to a major debate regarding the nature of visual consciousness. The overflow argument suggests that our conscious experience is quite rich and far beyond what can be reported, standing in sharp contrast to the nooverflow argument that visual consciousness is severely impoverished and limited to what can be reported. In this paper, we systematically reviewed existing evidence in favor of the overflow argument, including studies of several variations of the iconic memory paradigm and the divided attention paradigm, as well as studies of neural correlates of consciousness. Simultaneously,we expounded some critical objections and alternative interpretations to such evidence, as well as some opposing evidence.Finally, we introduced a series of our recent studies based on a striking phenomenon of attribute amnesia, which we believe could provide new insight into the overflow view of visual consciousness.     

A High‐Resolution Approach to Mapping Energy Flows through Water Infrastructure Systems

Using data from the water service area of the East Bay Municipal Utility District in Northern California, we develop and discuss a method for assessing, at a high resolution, the energy intensity of water treated and delivered to customers of a major metropolitan water district. This method extends previous efforts by integrating hourly data from supervisory control and data acquisition systems with calculations based on the actual structure of the engineered infrastructure to produce a detailed understanding of energy use in space and time within the territory of a large‐scale urban water provider. We found significant variations in the energy intensity of delivered potable water resulting from seasonal and topographic effects. This method enhances our understanding of the energy inputs for potable water systems and can be applied to the entire delivery and postuse water life cycle. A nuanced understanding of water's energy intensity in an urban setting enables more intelligent, targeted efforts to jointly conserve water and energy resources that take seasonal, distance, and elevation effects into account.