Vizualizing the morphogen adsorption gradient in the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xenopus laevis</Emphasis> embryo using fluorescently labeled heparin-binding motif of BMP4 morphogen

Spatial distribution of heparan sulfates in the embryonic extracellular matrix at midgastrula stage has been demonstrated in the Xenopus laevis embryo model. Towards this end, fluorescently labeled fusion protein EGFP-hbmBMP4 made up by green fluorescent protein (EGFP) and heparin-binding motif of Bone Morphogenetic Protein 4 (BMP4) was produced in the E. coli expression system. Xenopus laevis embryos at midgastrula stage (stage 11) were fixed and cut along the anteroposterior axis and then incubated with EGFP-hbmBMP4. The fluorescently labeled samples were analyzed in fluorescence microscope. The spatial distribution of fluorescence intensity reflecting BMP4 adsorption on the embryonic extracellular matrix proved to be similar to the corresponding distribution pattern for the Noggin1 heparin-binding motif obtained previously. The highest intensity zone was detected around the dorsal blastopore lip; another high intensity zone, although slightly less prominent, was observed in the ventral blastopore lip region. Since on one hand, heparin-binding sites significantly differ in their organization in BMP4 and Noggin1 proteins and, on the other hand, spatial adsorption distribution patterns for these proteins coincide in the embryo, it appears that all secreted morphogens containing a heparin-binding site share a single adsorption gradient in the embryonic extracellular space.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Xenopus laevis</Emphasis> peroxiredoxins: Gene expression during development and characterization of the enzymes

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced via catabolic and anabolic processes during normal embryonic development, and ROS content in the cell is maintained at a certain level. Peroxiredoxins are a family of selenium-independent peroxidases and play a key role in maintaining redox homeostasis of the cell. In addition to regulating the ROS level, peroxiredoxins are involved in intracellular and intercellular signaling, cell differentiation, and tissue development. The time course of peroxiredoxin gene (prx1–6) expression was studied in Xenopus laevis during early ontogeny (Nieuwkoop and Faber stages 10–63). The highest expression level was observed for prx1 at these developmental stages. The prx1, prx3, and prx4 expression level changed most dramatically in response to oxidative stress artificially induced in X. laevis embryos. In X. laevis adults, prx1–6 were all intensely expressed in all organs examined, the prx1 expression level being the highest. The X. laevis prx1–6 genes were cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli, and physico-chemical characteristics were compared for the recombinant enzymes. The highest peroxidase activity and thermal stability were observed for Prx1 and Prx2. It was assumed that Prx1 plays a leading role in X. laevis early development.     

Interaction of secreted factor Agr2 with its potential receptors from the family of three-finger proteins

Interactions of the secreted protein XAgr2 of the Agr (anterior gradient proteins) family with six submembrane proteins, Tfp1–6, from the family of three-finger proteins Ly6 were studied in Xenopus laevis embryos. Earlier, other authors have shown that the newt homologue of XAgr2 is able to bind the Prod1 three-finger protein, which participates in the establishment of the proximal-to-distal pattern of cell differentiation in the regenerating blastema of a newt’s limb bud. Here, we identified six homologues of Prod1 in Xenopus laevis genome named Tfp1–6. By co-immunoprecipitation, we demonstrated that among these homologues, Tfp4 is the most probable receptor of XAgr2. Further study of the revealed interactions between XAgr2 and Tfp4 is of significant interest because XAgr2 is involved in the signaling pathways that regulate neural system development and the body appendages regeneration.     

Impairment of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Wnt11</Emphasis> function leads to kidney tubular abnormalities and secondary glomerular cystogenesis

Background

Wnt11 is a member of the Wnt family of secreted signals controlling the early steps in ureteric bud (UB) branching. Due to the reported lethality of Wnt11 knockout embryos in utero, its role in later mammalian kidney organogenesis remains open. The presence of Wnt11 in the emerging tubular system suggests that it may have certain roles later in the development of the epithelial ductal system.

Results

The Wnt11 knockout allele was backcrossed with the C57Bl6 strain for several generations to address possible differences in penetrance of the kidney phenotypes. Strikingly, around one third of the null mice with this inbred background survived to the postnatal stages. Many of them also reached adulthood, but urine and plasma analyses pointed out to compromised kidney function. Consistent with these data the tubules of the C57Bl6 Wnt11 ^?/? mice appeared to be enlarged, and the optical projection tomography indicated changes in tubular convolution. Moreover, the C57Bl6 Wnt11 ^?/? mice developed secondary glomerular cysts not observed in the controls. The failure of Wnt11 signaling reduced the expression of several genes implicated in kidney development, such as Wnt9b, Six2, Foxd1 and Hox10. Also Dvl2, an important PCP pathway component, was downregulated by more than 90 % due to Wnt11 deficiency in both the E16.5 and NB kidneys. Since all these genes take part in the control of UB, nephron and stromal progenitor cell differentiation, their disrupted expression may contribute to the observed anomalies in the kidney tubular system caused by Wnt11 deficiency.

Conclusions

The Wnt11 signal has roles at the later stages of kidney development, namely in coordinating the development of the tubular system. The C57Bl6 Wnt11 ^?/? mouse generated here provides a model for studying the mechanisms behind tubular anomalies and glomerular cyst formation.

     

A secreted splice variant of the Xenopus frizzled-4 receptor is a biphasic modulator of Wnt signalling

Background

Activation of the Wnt signalling cascade is primarily based on the interplay between Wnt ligands, their receptors and extracellular modulators. One prominent family of extracellular modulators is represented by the SFRP (secreted Frizzled-related protein) family. These proteins have significant similarity to the extracellular domain of Frizzled receptors, suggesting that they bind Wnt ligands and inhibit signalling. The SFRP-type protein Fz4-v1, a splice variant of the Frizzled-4 receptor found in humans and Xenopus, was shown to augment Wnt/β-catenin signalling, and also interacts with those Wnt ligands that act on β-catenin-independent Wnt pathways.

Findings

Here we show that Xenopus Fz4-v1 can activate and inhibit the β-catenin-dependent Wnt pathway. Gain-of-function experiments revealed that high Wnt/β-catenin activity is inhibited by low and high concentrations of Fz4-v1. In contrast, signals generated by low amounts of Wnt ligands were enhanced by low concentrations of Fz4-v1 but were repressed by high concentrations. This biphasic activity of Fz4-v1 was not observed in non-canonical Wnt signalling. Fz4-v1 enhanced β-catenin-independent Wnt signalling triggered by either low or high doses of Wnt11. Antisense morpholino-mediated knock-down experiments demonstrated that in early Xenopus embryos Fz4-v1 is required for the migration of cranial neural crest cells and for the development of the dorsal fin.

Conclusions

For the first time, we show that a splice variant of the Frizzled-4 receptor modulates Wnt signalling in a dose-dependent, biphasic manner. These results also demonstrate that the cystein-rich domain (CRD), which is shared by Fz4-v1 and SFRPs, is sufficient for the biphasic activity of these secreted Wnt modulators.

     

Differential regulation of two histidine ammonia-lyase genes during <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xenopus</Emphasis> development implicates distinct functions during thyroid hormone-induced formation of adult stem cells

Background

Organ-specific, adult stem cells are essential for organ-homeostasis and tissue repair and regeneration. The formation of such stem cells during vertebrate development remains to be investigated. Frog metamorphosis offers an excellent opportunity to study the formation of adult stem cells as this process involves essentially the transformations of all larval tissues/organs into the adult form. Of particular interest is the remodeling of the intestine. Early studies in Xenopus laevis have shown that this process involves complete degeneration of the larval epithelium and de novo formation of adult stem cells through dedifferentiation of some larval epithelial cells. A major advantage of this metamorphosis model is its total dependence on thyroid hormone (T3). In an effort to identify genes that are important for stem cell development, we have previously carried out tissue-specific microarray analysis of intestinal gene expression during Xenopus laevis metamorphosis.

Results

We report the detailed characterization of one of the genes thus identified, the histidine ammonia-lyase (HAL) gene, which encodes an enzyme known as histidase or histidinase. We show that there are two duplicated HAL genes, HAL1 and HAL2, in both Xenopus laevis and Xenopus tropicalis, a highly related but diploid species. Interestingly, only HAL2 is highly upregulated by T3 and appears to be specifically expressed in the adult intestinal progenitor/stem cells while HAL1 is not expressed in the intestine during metamorphosis. Furthermore, when analyzed in whole animals, HAL1 appears to be expressed only during embryogenesis but not metamorphosis while the opposite appears to be true for HAL2.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that the duplicated HAL genes have distinct functions with HAL2 likely involved in the formation and/or proliferation of the adult stem cells during metamorphosis.

     

Conservation of the MC domains in eukaryotic release factor eRF3

Eukaryotic translation termination employs two protein factors, eRF1 and eRF3. Proteins of the eRF3 family each consist of three domains. The N and M domains vary in different species, while the C domains are highly homologous. The MC domains of Homo sapiens eRF3a (hGSPT1), Xenopus laevis eRF3 (XSup35), and Mus musculus eRF3a (mGSPT1) and eRF3b (mGSPT2) were found to compensate for the sup35-21(ts) temperature-sensitive mutation and lethal disruption of the SUP35 gene in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. At the same time, strains containing the MC domains of the eRF3 proteins from different species differed in growth rate and the efficiency of translation termination.     

The E3 ubiquitin ligase Hace1 is required for early embryonic development in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xenopus laevis</Emphasis>

Background

HECT domain and ankyrin repeat containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 (HACE1) regulates a wide variety of cellular processes. It has been shown that one of the targets of HACE1 is the GTP-bound form of the small GTPase Rac1. However, the role of HACE1 in early development remains unknown.

Results

In situ hybridization revealed that Xenopus laevis hace1 is specifically expressed in the ectoderm at the blastula and gastrula stages and in the epidermis, branchial arch, kidney, and central nervous system at the tailbud stage. Knockdown of hace1 in Xenopus laevis embryos via antisense morpholino oligonucleotides led to defects in body axis elongation, pigment formation, and eye formation at the tadpole stage. Experiments with Keller sandwich explants showed that hace1 knockdown inhibited convergent extension, a morphogenetic movement known to be crucial for body axis elongation. In addition, time lapse imaging of whole embryos during the neurula stage indicated that hace1 knockdown also delayed neural tube closure. The defects caused by hace1 knockdown were partly rescued by knockdown of rac1. Moreover, embryos expressing a constitutively active form of Rac1 displayed phenotypes similar to those of embryos with hace1 knocked down.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that Xenopus laevis hace1 plays an important role in early embryonic development, possibly via regulation of Rac1 activity.

     

The cholinomimetic morantel as an open channel blocker of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ascaris suum</Emphasis> ACR-16 nAChR

Nematode parasite infections pose a significant threat in human and veterinary medicine. At least a third of the world’s population is at risk from nematode parasite infections. These infections not only cause health problems, but also cause loss of livestock production and hence, economic losses. Anthelmintic drugs are the mainstay by which control of nematode parasite infections is achieved. Many of the currently available anthelmintics act on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). However, the detailed mode of action (MOA) of these anthelmintics is not clearly understood. Elucidation of the MOA of anthelmintics is highly desirable; an in-depth knowledge of the MOA will better inform on mechanisms of resistance development and on ways to slow down or overcome resistance. The cholinomimetic anthelmintic, morantel, has a complex MOA involving the activation and block of levamisole-sensitive single nAChR channels (L-type nAChR or L-nAChR). More recently, morantel has been demonstrated to activate Haemonchus contortus and Parascaris equorum ACR-26/ACR-27 nAChRs expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Previous studies in our laboratory, however, have shown morantel does not activate the nicotine-sensitive nAChR (N-type nAChR or N-nAChR), Ascaris suum ACR-16 (Asu-ACR-16). In this study, we used two-electrode voltage-clamp (TEVC) electrophysiology to investigate the inhibitory effects of morantel, on expressed Asu-ACR-16 nAChRs in X. laevis oocytes. Our results show that morantel acts as a non-competitive antagonist on Asu-ACR-16. This non-competitive antagonism by morantel was further demonstrated to be voltage-sensitive. We conclude based on our findings that morantel is a non-competitive voltage-sensitive open channel blocker of Asu-ACR-16.     

Study of the mechanism of small GTPase Ras-dva intracellular localization

An analysis of amino acid sequences of small GTPases of the Ras-dva family allowed us to determine the C-terminal prenylation motif, which could be responsible for the membrane localization of these proteins. We demonstrated using the in vivo EGFP-tracing that the Ras-dva small GTPases from the Xenopus laevis embryo-cells and NIH-3T3 fibroblasts are localized on both plasma membranes and endomembranes (the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and vesicles). At the same time, the replacement of Cys residue, the SH group of which must be theoretically farnesylated, in the C-terminal prenylation motif of the Ras-dva small GTPase by the Ser residue prevented the membrane localization of the protein. These results indicate that the C-terminal prenylation site is critical for the membrane localization of small Ras-dva GTPases.     

Shared behavioral responses and predation risk of anuran larvae and adults exposed to a novel predator

Invasive species are a regional and global threat to biological diversity. In order to evaluate an invasive predator species’ potential to harm populations of native prey species, it is critical to evaluate the behavioral responses of all life stages of the native prey species to the novel predator. The invasion of the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis) into southern California provides an opportunity to evaluate the predation risk and behavioral responses of native amphibians. We performed predation trials and explored prey behavioral responses to determine how this invasive predator may impact native amphibian populations using Pacific chorus frogs (Pseudacris regilla) as a representative native California prey species. We found that X. laevis will readily prey upon larval and adult life stages of P. regilla. Behavior trials indicated that both larval and adult P. regilla exhibit prey response behaviors and will spatially avoid the novel invasive predator. The results suggest that native anurans may have a redundant predator response in both the larval and adult life stages, which could reduce the predatory impact of X. laevis but also drive emigration of native amphibians from invaded habitat.     

Secreted proteins produced by fungi associated with <Emphasis Type="Italic">Botryosphaeria</Emphasis> dieback trigger distinct defense responses in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vitis vinifera</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vitis rupestris</Emphasis> cells

Grapevine trunk diseases (Eutypa dieback, esca and Botryosphaeria dieback) are caused by a complex of xylem-inhabiting fungi, which severely reduce yields in vineyards. Botryosphaeria dieback is associated with Botryosphaeriaceae. In order to develop effective strategies against Botryosphaeria dieback, we investigated the molecular basis of grapevine interactions with a virulent species, Neofusicoccum parvum, and a weak pathogen, Diplodia seriata. We investigated defenses induced by purified secreted fungal proteins within suspension cells of Vitis (Vitis rupestris and Vitis vinifera cv. Gewurztraminer) with putative different susceptibility to Botryosphaeria dieback. Our results show that Vitis cells are able to detect secreted proteins produced by Botryosphaeriaceae, resulting in a rapid alkalinization of the extracellular medium and the production of reactive oxygen species. Concerning early defense responses, N. parvum proteins induced a more intense response compared to D. seriata. Early and late defense responses, i.e., extracellular medium alkalinization, cell death, and expression of PR defense genes were stronger in V. rupestris compared to V. vinifera, except for stilbene production. Secreted Botryosphaeriaceae proteins triggered a high accumulation of δ-viniferin in V. vinifera suspension cells. Artificial inoculation assays on detached canes with N. parvum and D. seriata showed that the development of necrosis is reduced in V. rupestris compared to V. vinifera cv. Gewurztraminer. This may be related to a more efficient induction of defense responses in V. rupestris, although not sufficient to completely inhibit fungal colonization. Overall, our work shows a specific signature of defense responses depending on the grapevine genotype and the fungal species.     

Regulation of nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) and downstream myogenic proteins during dehydration in the African clawed frog

Xenopus laevis, otherwise known as the African clawed frog, undergoes natural dehydration of up to 30% of its total body water during the dry season in sub-Saharan Africa. To survive under these conditions, a variety of physiological and biochemical changes take place in X. laevis. We were interested in understanding the role that the calcineurin-NFAT pathway plays during dehydration stress response in the skeletal muscles of X. laevis. Immunoblotting was performed to characterize the protein levels of NFATc1-4, calcium signalling proteins, in addition to myogenic proteins (MyoD, MyoG, myomaker). In addition, DNA–protein interaction ELISAs were used to assess the binding of NFATs to their consensus binding sequence, and to identify the effect of urea on NFAT-binding. Our results showed that NFATc1 and c4 protein levels decreased during dehydration, and there were no changes in NFATc2, c3, and calcium signalling proteins. However, MyoG and myomaker both showed increases in protein levels during dehydration, thus indicating that the late myogenic program involving myoblast differentiation, but not satellite cell activation and myoblast proliferation, could be involved in preserving the skeletal muscle of X. laevis during dehydration. In addition, we observed that urea seems to reduce NFATc3-binding to DNA during control, but not during dehydration, possibly indicating that NFATc3 is protected from the denaturing effects of urea as it accumulates during dehydration. These findings expand upon our knowledge of adaptive responses to dehydration, and they identify specific protein targets that could be used to protect the skeletal muscle from damage during stress.     

Cloning and expression analysis of zygote arrest 1 (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Zar1</Emphasis>) in New Zealand white rabbits

Zygote arrest 1 (Zar1) is an oocyte-specific maternal-effect gene. Previous studies indicate that Zar1 plays important role in early embryo development, but little is known about its function in rabbit. The objectives of this study were to clone the New Zealand white rabbit Zar1 gene and to investigate its expression in various organs in groups of animals with different reproductive traits. We obtained a 709-bp Zar1 cDNA fragment consisting of an 8-bp exon 1, 161-bp exon 2, 75-bp exon 3, 271-bp exon 4 and 194-bp 3 ^' sequences. The rabbit Zar1 nucleotide sequence showed per cent identities of 91, 88, 88, 87, 86, 87, 76 and 82% with Zar1 orthologues in human, cattle, sheep, pig, mouse, rat, zebrafish and Xenopus laevis, respectively, indicating a high homology with other species and evolutionary conservation. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analyses revealed nonoocyte-specific Zar1 expression, with expression in spleen, lung, ovary, uterus, heart, liver and kidney. The expression level was highest in the lung. This study may lay the theoretical foundation for the study of ZAR1’s biological function.     

New Approach to Identification of Genes Controlling Cell Wall Biogenesis in the Yeast <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</Emphasis>

MCD4 codes for a protein presumably adding the phosphoethanolamine moiety to the first mannose residue of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) precursors in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The role of this modification is still unclear. The phenotypic effects of some MCD4 mutations are probably unrelated to defects in GPI synthesis, suggesting additional functions for Mcd4p. To study the Mcd4p functions in more detail, a search for the genes whose mutations are lethal or semilethal in combination with the ssu21 mutation of MCD4 was performed. Six such mutations were isolated, including some mutations causing sensitivity to SDS and/or calcofluor white. Genes complementing two out of the six mutations were cloned and identified as MNN9, which is involved in the formation of outer chains of N-linked glycans of secreted proteins, and GWT1, which codes for an endoplasmic reticulum protein involved in GPI biosynthesis. In both cases, growth inhibition was probably caused by defective biogenesis of the cell wall and a misfolding of secreted proteins. The proposed approach is suitable for seeking new genes controlling cell wall biogenesis.     

Effects of mechanical stretching of embryonic tissues on axial structure formation in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xenopus laevis</Emphasis>

Effect of mechanical stretch on the differentiation of axial anlages and Chordin gene expression was studied in sandwich explants prepared from embryonic tissues of Xenopus laevis at the early gastrula stage in two variants: with dissected or intact dorso-medial region. In the first case, convergent cell movements were suppressed and properly organized axial organs (notochord and somites) were almost completely absent. However, they developed if the explants of such type were artificially stretched in the ventro-dorsal direction. In this case, axial organs elongated in the line of stretching, that is in the direction vertical to their normal orientation. Segmented mesoderm was always in contact with the chord anlage. In situ hybridization revealed that the area of Chordin gene expression was also extended in the direction of stretching. PCR showed that Chordin gene expression in stretched explants with disrupted dorso-medial region was statistically at the same level as in the explants with intact dorso-medial region. At the same time, the corresponding gene expression in unstretched explants with disrupted dorso-medial region was statistically higher. The obtained data indicate that mechanical stretch and associated cell movements are a necessary and sufficient condition for the formation of proper histological structure of axial organs and regulation of Chordin gene expression.