Response of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans to phosphate limitation

Abstract: Phosphate ion is an essential nutrient for all cells. Consequently, starvation for this component may constitute a stressing condition which affects the bioleaching capacity of the biomining microorganisms. Therefore, we have studied the manner in which the chemolithotroph Thiobacillus ferrooxidans responds to phosphate limitation. Under these circumstances the bacteria reduced its growth rate, capacity to oxidize ferrous iron and to fix CO,. Concomitant with these changes, the cells showed an increased synthesis of several proteins, some of which were exclusively synthesized during phosphate starvation. When intact cells grown in the absence of phosphate were labelled with ¹²⁵I, several proteins were iodinated in addition of those observed in control cells, suggesting that the lack of phosphate induces some proteins located in the membranes or the periplasmic space of the bacteria. It is expected that by measuring the levels of expression of some of the proteins induced by the shortage of phosphorus, it might be possible to estimate in situ the relative physiological condition of the bacteria in a given bioleaching operation.     

热休克蛋白调控机制

热休克蛋白是生物体体应对温度、pH、渗透压等不利环境刺激时合成的一种保护蛋白。在环境应激时,调控因子可以在转录水平上调控热休克基因的表达,恢复或加速清除细胞内已经变性的蛋白质,使细胞处于稳态并产生耐受性。大量研究发现,热休克调控因子对微生物应激耐受性发挥重要作用,具有广阔的应用前景。综述了6类热休克调控因子的调控机制以及相互作用,对调控因子HrcA、σ^B和CtsR进行了重点阐述,旨在为进一步构建热休克调控网络提供有价值的参考。     

ClpL is essential for induction of thermotolerance and is potentially part of the HrcA regulon in Lactobacillus gasseri

Stress-inducible proteins are likely to contribute to the survival and activity of probiotic bacteria during industrial processes and in the gastrointestinal tract. The recently published genome sequence of probiotic Lactobacillus gasseri ATCC 33323 suggests the presence of ClpC, ClpE, ClpL, and ClpX from the Clp ATPase family of stress proteins. The heat-shock response of L. gasseri was studied using 2-D DIGE. A total of 20 protein spots showing significant (p<0.05) increase in abundance after 30 min heat-shock were identified, including DnaK, GroEL, ClpC, ClpE, and ClpL. To study the physiological role of ClpL, one of the most highly induced proteins during heat-shock, its corresponding gene was inactivated. The DeltaclpL mutant strain had growth characteristics that were indistinguishable from wild-type under several stress conditions. However, in the absence of functional ClpL, L. gasseri exhibited drastically reduced survival at a lethal temperature and was unable to induce thermotolerance. Genome sequences indicate that the expression of clp genes in several Lactobacillus species is regulated by HrcA, instead of CtsR, the conserved clp gene regulator of low G+C Gram-positive bacteria. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays using L. gasseri HrcA protein and clpL upstream fragments revealed, for the first time, a direct interaction between HrcA and the promoter of a clp gene from a Lactobacillus.     

Heat-shock response and its contribution to thermotolerance of the nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Anabaena</Emphasis> sp. strain L-31

Compared to Escherichia coli, the nitrogen-fixing soil cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. strain L-31 exhibited significantly superior abilities to survive prolonged and continuous heat stress and recover therefrom. Temperature upshift induced the synthesis of heat-shock proteins of similar molecular mass in the two microbes. However, in Anabaena sp. strain L-31 the heat-shock proteins (particularly the GroEL proteins) were synthesised throughout the stress period, were much more stable and accumulated during heat stress. In contrast, in E. coli the heat-shock proteins were transiently synthesised, quickly turned over and did not accumulate. Nitrogenase activity of Anabaena cells of sp. strain L-31 continuously exposed to heat stress for 7 days rapidly recovered from thermal injury, although growth recovery was delayed. Exposure of E. coli cells to >4.5 h of heat stress resulted in a complete loss of viability and the ability to recover. Marked differences in the synthesis, stability and accumulation of heat-shock proteins appear to distinguish these bacteria in their thermotolerance and recovery from heat stress.     

万座嗜酸两面菌硫代谢相关膜蛋白基因的筛选

活性巯基在浸矿微生物硫代谢的过程中起着重要的作用,半胱氨酸残基作为蛋白质中活性巯基的提供者,为筛选硫代谢相关蛋白质基因提供了依据。本研究以极端嗜酸热古菌万座嗜酸两面菌Acidianus manzaensis为研究对象,基于其全基因组注释信息,筛选出编码富半胱氨酸残基的潜在硫代谢相关膜蛋白基因,并通过RT-qPCR实验对筛选出来的基因进行表达水平验证,同时利用生物信息学方法对其进一步分析。研究表明,与在亚铁中生长的细胞相比,单质硫培养下的细菌中与能量代谢相关的β-葡糖苷酶,与电子传递相关的ATP合成酶、NADH-辅酶Q氧化还原酶基因均表达上调,说明硫代谢途径可能与能量代谢和电子传递有着重要的联系。此外,还有三个假定蛋白基因表达上调,这三个假定膜蛋白中,ARM75161.1、ARM75436.1中的半胱氨酸都位于保守区域,且均有一个半胱氨酸残基暴露于膜外,而ARM75580.1中的半光氨酸不位于保守区域。其中ARM75436.1具有CXXXC结构域,且该结构域中半胱氨酸残基处于同一个β-折叠中。这些假定蛋白可能参与A. manzaensis中硫代谢途径。     

Asymmetric segregation of heat-shock proteins upon cell division in Caulobacter crescentus

Three Caulobacter crescentus heat-shock proteins were shown to be immunologically related to the Escherichia coli heat-shock proteins GroEL, Lon and DnaK. A fourth heat-shock protein was detected with antibody to the C. crescentus RNA polymerase. This 37,000 Mr heat-shock protein might be related to the E. coli 32,000 Mr heat-shock sigma subunit. The synthesis of the major C. crescentus RNA polymerase sigma factor was not induced by heat shock. The E. coli GroEL protein and the related protein from C. crescentus were also induced by treatment with hydrogen peroxide. Like some of the proteins in the heat-shock protein families of Drosophila and yeast, the four heat-shock proteins in C. crescentus were found to be regulated developmentally under normal conditions. All four proteins were synthesized in the predivisional cell, but the progeny showed cell type-specific bias in the level of enhanced synthesis after heat shock. The 92,000 Mr Lon homolog and the 37,000 Mr RNA polymerase subunit were preferentially synthesized in the stalked cell, whereas the synthesis of the 62,000 Mr GroEL homolog was enhanced in the progeny swarmer cell. Furthermore, the four heat-shock proteins synthesized in the predivisional cell were partitioned in a specific manner upon cell division. The stalked cell, which initiates chromosome replication immediately upon division, received the Lon homolog, the DnaK homolog and the 37,000 Mr RNA polymerase subunit. The GroEL homolog, however, was distributed equally to both the stalked cell and the swarmer cell. These results provide access to the functions of C. crescentus heat-shock proteins under both normal and stress conditions. They also allow an investigation of the regulatory signals that modulate the asymmetric distribution of proteins and their subsequent cell type-specific expression in the initial stages of a developmental program.     

Organismal, Ecological, and Evolutionary Aspects of Heat-Shock Proteins and the Stress Response: Established Conclusions and Unresolved Issues

How heat-shock proteins function in diverse organisms from diverseenvironments, and how this diversification has evolved, is anemerging focus of research on molecular chaperones. As molecularchaperones, heat-shock proteins play diverse cellular roles,typically in minimizing dysfunction that may occur when otherproteins are in non-native conformations. The standard aspectsof these roles in vitro, in isolated cells, and in typical modelorganisms in the laboratory are now well-established, as arethe ubiquity of heat-shock proteins in organisms, the rangeof stresses that induce heat-shock proteins, the major familiesof heatshock proteins, their expression in nature, and theirvariation along natural gradients of stress. These aspects mayno longer require extensive examination. By contrast, the frequencyof natural expression of heat-shock proteins, their exact physiologicalroles in stress tolerance at levels of biological organizationabove the cell, the exact molecular mechanisms by which heat-shockprotein expression and function has become tuned to the prevailinglevel of environmental stress, and the fitness consequencesof heat-shock protein expression in nature are among the numerousunresolved issues in this area.     

Investigation of energy gene expressions and community structures of free and attached acidophilic bacteria in chalcopyrite bioleaching

In order to better understand the bioleaching mechanism, expression of genes involved in energy conservation and community structure of free and attached acidophilic bacteria in chalcopyrite bioleaching were investigated. Using quantitative real-time PCR, we studied the expression of genes involved in energy conservation in free and attached Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans during bioleaching of chalcopyrite. Sulfur oxidation genes of attached A. ferrooxidans were up-regulated while ferrous iron oxidation genes were down-regulated compared with free A. ferrooxidans in the solution. The up-regulation may be induced by elemental sulfur on the mineral surface. This conclusion was supported by the results of HPLC analysis. Sulfur-oxidizing Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans and ferrous-oxidizing Leptospirillum ferrooxidans were the members of the mixed culture in chalcopyrite bioleaching. Study of the community structure of free and attached bacteria showed that A. thiooxidans dominated the attached bacteria while L. ferrooxidans dominated the free bacteria. With respect to available energy sources during bioleaching of chalcopyrite, sulfur-oxidizers tend to be on the mineral surfaces whereas ferrous iron-oxidizers tend to be suspended in the aqueous phase. Taken together, these results indicate that the main role of attached acidophilic bacteria was to oxidize elemental sulfur and dissolution of chalcopyrite involved chiefly an indirect bioleaching mechanism.     

Identification of trehalose as a compatible solute in different species of acidophilic bacteria

The major industrial heap bioleaching processes are located in desert regions (mainly Chile and Australia) where fresh water is scarce and the use of resources with low water activity becomes an attractive alternative. However, in spite of the importance of the microbial populations involved in these processes, little is known about their response or adaptation to osmotic stress. In order to investigate the response to osmotic stress in these microorganisms, six species of acidophilic bacteria were grown at elevated osmotic strength in liquid media, and the compatible solutes synthesised were identified using ion chromatography and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Trehalose was identified as one of, or the sole, compatible solute in all species and strains, apart from Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans where glucose and proline levels increased at elevated osmotic potentials. Several other potential compatible solutes were tentatively identified by MALDITOF analysis. The same compatible solutes were produced by these bacteria regardless of the salt used to produce the osmotic stress. The results correlate with data from sequenced genomes which confirm that many chemolithotrophic and heterotrophic acidophiles possess genes for trehalose synthesis. This is the first report to identify and quantify compatible solutes in acidophilic bacteria that have important roles in biomining technologies.     

Progress in bioleaching: part B: applications of microbial processes by the minerals industries

This review presents developments and applications in bioleaching and mineral biooxidation since publication of a previous mini review in 2003 (Olson et al. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 63:249–257, 2003). There have been discoveries of newly identified acidophilic microorganisms that have unique characteristics for effective bioleaching of sulfidic ores and concentrates. Progress has been made in understanding and developing bioleaching of copper from primary copper sulfide minerals, chalcopyrite, covellite, and enargite. These developments point to low oxidation–reduction potential in concert with thermophilic bacteria and archaea as a potential key to the leaching of these minerals. On the commercial front, heap bioleaching of nickel has been commissioned, and the mineral biooxidation pretreatment of sulfidic-refractory gold concentrates is increasingly used on a global scale to enhance precious metal recovery. New and larger stirred-tank reactors have been constructed since the 2003 review article. One biooxidation–heap process for pretreatment of sulfidic-refractory gold ores was also commercialized. A novel reductive approach to bioleaching nickel laterite minerals has been proposed.     

Salt stress and hyperosmotic stress regulate the expression of different sets of genes in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803.

Acclimation of microorganisms to environmental stress is closely related to the expression of various genes. We report here that salt stress and hyperosmotic stress have different effects on the cytoplasmic volume and gene expression in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. DNA microarray analysis indicated that salt stress strongly induced the genes for some ribosomal proteins. Hyperosmotic stress strongly induced the genes for 3-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein reductase and rare lipoprotein A. Genes whose expression was induced both by salt stress and by hyperosmotic stress included those for heat-shock proteins and the enzymes for the synthesis of glucosylglycerol. We also found that each kind of stress induced a number of genes for proteins of unknown function. Our findings suggest that Synechocystis recognizes salt stress and hyperosmotic stress as different stimuli, although mechanisms common to the responses to each form of stress might also contribute to gene expression.     

Proteomic analysis of recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae upon iron deficiency induced via human H-ferritin production

In our previous study, the expression of active H-ferritins in Saccharomyces cerevisiae was found to reduce cell growth and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation upon exposure to oxidative stress; such expression enhanced that of high-affinity iron transport genes (FET3 and FTR1). The results suggested that the recombinant cells expressing H-ferritins induced cytosolic iron depletion. The present study analyzes metabolic changes under these circumstances via proteomic methods. The YGH2 yeast strain expressing H-ferritin, the YGH2-KG (E62K and H65G) mutant strain, and the YGT control strain were used. Comparative proteomic analysis showed that the synthesis of 34 proteins was at least stimulated in YGH2, whereas the other 37 proteins were repressed. Among these, the 31 major protein spots were analyzed via nano-LC/MS/MS. The increased proteins included major heat-shock proteins and proteins related to endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD). On the other hand, the proteins involved with folate metabolism, purine and methionine biosynthesis, and translation were reduced. In addition, we analyzed the insoluble protein fractions and identified the fragments of Idh1p and Pgk1p, as well as several ribosomal assembly-related proteins. This suggests that intracellular iron depletion induces imperfect translation of proteins. Although the proteins identified above result from changes in iron metabolism (i.e., iron deficiency), definitive evidence for iron-related proteins remains insufficient. Nevertheless, this study is the first to present a molecular model for iron deficiency, and the results may provide valuable information on the regulatory network of iron metabolism.     

The effect of extracellular Ca2+ and temperature on the induction of the heat-shock and glucose-regulated proteins in hamster fibroblasts

The expression of two stress-inducible protein families was examined in hamster fibroblast cells. These are the heat-shock and glucose-regulated proteins which have been shown to be highly inducible by heat and glucose-starvation, respectively. Our studies here demonstrate that the two sets of proteins can be induced simultaneously or separately. The enhanced synthesis of one set of proteins apparently does not affect the level of expression of the other set. We further show that pre-incubation of these fibroblast cells in calcium-free medium does not inhibit the synthesis of the 70 and 72-kilodalton heat-shock proteins at the elevated temperature. While extracellular calcium is apparently not involved in the activation of the heat-shock protein synthesis, its removal from the culture medium has a modest stimulative effect on the synthesis of the glucose-regulated proteins. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that the expression of these two sets of proteins are regulated by separate control mechanisms.     

Heat-shock response of rat hepatoma variant cells

The effect of mild heat shock on protein synthesis was examined in differentiated and dedifferentiated, glucocorticoid-sensitive and resistant clones of H4IIEC3 rat hepatoma cells by one- and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis of [35S]methionine-labeled proteins. Among the major heat-shock proteins, five were induced in all hepatoma clones. Certain members of the HSP70 family and the corresponding mRNAs were only slightly inducible in the glucocorticoid-resistant variants, but were strongly inducible in the sensitive ones. Three other proteins lacked heat inducibility in the dedifferentiated clones. The constitutive level of one major heat-shock protein was elevated in all dedifferentiated variants. These results show that the stage of differentiation influences the expression of heat-shock genes of hepatoma cells. We found no correlation between the elevated constitutive or induced level of heat-shock proteins and heat resistance.     

Heat shock inhibits the induced expression of the SOS genes and SoxRS regulons in Escherichia coli

Oxidative stress formed in Escherichia coli cells is known to bring about a complex induction of alternative DNA repair processes, including SOS, SoxRS, and heat-shock response (HSR). The modification by heat shock of the expression of sfiA and soxS genes induced by oxidative agents H2O2, menadione and 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (4NQO) was studied for the first time. Quantitative parameters of gene expression were examined in E. coli strains with fused genes (promoters) sfiA::lacZ and soxS::lacZ. The expression of these genes induced by cell treatment with H2O2, but not menadione or 4NQO, was shown to decrease selectively after exposure to heat shock. Since genetic activity of menadione and 4NQO depends mainly on the formation of superoxide anion O2-, it is assumed that the effect of selective inhibition by heat-shock of sfiA and soxS gene expression in experiments with H2O2 is connected with activity of DnaK heat shock protein, which, unlike other heat-shock proteins, cannot be induced by superoxide anion O2-.