Effects of dispersal, predators (Acari: Phytoseiidae), weather, and ground cover treatments on populations of Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae) in apple orchards

In a 2-yr study of causes of mite outbreaks in apple (Malus spp.) orchards in Nova Scotia, we monitored immigration of Tetranychus urticae Koch from orchard ground cover into trees populated by the generalist phytoseiid predator Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten. In both years, T. urticae-days in the tree canopy increased with number of T. urticae caught in sticky bands on tree trunks. In 2000, T. urticae-days were negatively correlated with T. pyri-days. Lack of correlation in 2001 was attributed to higher rates of immigration, which would mask the effects of predation. Weather also affected mite dynamics. Rainfall in July and August was less in 2001 than in 2000. Heat units were sufficient for six generations of T. urticae in 2001 but only for five in 2000. Consequently, T. urticae-days in the tree canopy and immigration rates were significantly greater in 2001 than in 2000, despite three-fold greater use of miticides. We also tested the effects of herbicides on T. urticae immigration. Application of selective herbicides in laneways reduced coverage of reproductive hosts of T. urticae, but these changes did not reduce immigration. In 2001, application of a miticidal herbicide, glufosinate, in tree rows reduced captures of T. urticae on sticky bands in high immigration orchards but not in low immigration orchards. We conclude that generalist predators and modified herbicide use are insufficient remedies and that effective biological control of T. urticae in the ground cover by a specialist phytoseiid such as Amblyseius fallacis Garman is essential to prevent outbreaks.     

Development and implementation of a reduced risk peach arthropod management program in New Jersey

We implemented a 2-yr program to reduce organophosphorus and carbamate insecticide use and mitigate their associated risks as they relate to peach production in New Jersey and elsewhere. The main thrust integrated mating disruption with ground cover management practices to reduce oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), and tarnished plant bug, Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois) (Heteroptera: Miridae), abundance and damage. This Reduced Risk Peach Arthropod Management Program was compared with adjacent conventionally managed peach orchards. In 1999, we found 2.3 times fewer L. lineolaris and stink bugs (Euschistus servus (Say), E. tristigmus (Say), Acrostemum hilare (Say) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) and 2.0 times less heteropteran damaged peaches in reduced-risk orchards when compared with conventionally managed orchards. In 2000, we observed 4.9 times fewer heteropteran insects in reduced-risk orchards but damage levels were not significantly different between the two programs. In both years, G. molesta mating disruption gave at least 4 mo of noninsecticidal control of this major pest. The reduced-risk program provided a level of pest control that was equal to or better than conventional peach pest management programs while using fewer organophosporus and carbamate insecticides.     

Monitoring plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), populations in apple and peach orchards in the mid-Atlantic

We evaluated responses of plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst), to four trap types in commercial and unsprayed apple and peach orchards. Trap types included black pyramid and clear Plexiglas panel traps deployed outside the orchard 2 m from the border row, and branch-mimicking cylinder and trunk-mounted screen traps attached to trees in the border row. Bait treatments evaluated in conjunction with each trap type included the synthetic fruit volatile benzaldehyde, the aggregation pheromone grandisoic acid (GA), benzaldehyde in combination with GA, and an unbaited control treatment. In commercial apple orchards, significantly more plum curculio were captured in traps baited with benzaldehyde + GA compared with traps baited with other treatments. Furthermore, significantly more plum curculio were captured by screen traps baited with benzaldehyde + GA compared with unbaited control traps. Significantly more plum curculio were captured by screen traps compared with other trap types in an unsprayed apple orchard. Very few captures were recorded in commercial peach orchards. Dissections of trapped females indicate that bivoltine populations are present in the mid-Atlantic. In general, correlations between timing and amount of trap captures and timing and amount of fruit injury inflicted concurrently or 1 wk after trap captures were very weak for all trap types and bait combinations. Our results agree with previous studies in the northeastern United States in which trap captures are increased by presence of semiochemical baits but fail to serve as reliable tools to determine need for and timing of insecticide application against plum curculio.     

Circadian activity of Lygus lineolaris (Hemiptera: Miridae) and effectiveness of sampling techniques in strawberry fields

Mobility and distribution of adult tarnished plant bug, Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois), was studied on a day-neutral strawberry cultivar ('Selva') in 1991 and 1992 at L'Acadie, Quebec, Canada. On cage-covered plants, individuals were located mainly on reproductive parts. Study of the flight activity with sticky posts revealed that most captures were obtained < 1 m from ground level and that the time of the day at which the maximum counts occur varied among seasons. Three pest-sampling methods (white sticky trap, tapping of flower clusters, and D-Vac) were evaluated over continuous 24-h periods. Maximum captures of adults with white sticky traps were made at midday (1000-1400 hours), whereas the two other methods proved more effective at the beginning (0600-0800 hours) or the end of the day (2000-2200 hours) or during night time. For nymphs, maximum catches were obtained during the day with tapping and D-Vac; white sticky traps were ineffective. Because the D-Vac captures individuals present on all parts of the plant, these counts were used to monitor the effectiveness of the two other sampling techniques. The data suggest that tapping flower clusters throughout the day is a very effective sampling method to estimate nymphal tarnished plant bug populations in strawberries. However, sampling of populations with a high proportion of adults should take into account the bias caused by their flight activity, and sampling should be conducted early in the morning or at the end of the day.     

Unmown groundcover conserves adult populations of the predatory ground beetle Chlaenius micans (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in commercial apple orchards

To improve the success of integrated pest management in commercial apple orchards, I investigated whether the use of unmown white clover groundcover would enhance the numbers of a predatory ground beetle, Chlaenius micans (Fabricius), relative to mowing. From 2009 to 2011, narrow-spectrum insecticides were sprayed in one apple orchard and broad-spectrum insecticides in another in Akita Prefecture, northern Japan. Half of each orchard was plowed and sown to white clover in mid-April 2009; subsequently, these plots were not mowed and herbicides were not applied. The other half of each orchard was mowed every 3 weeks from mid-May to late August each year, and herbicides were sprayed around trees in mid-June. Significantly more adult Ch. micans were captured in pitfall traps in the unmown clover plots than in the mown plots. Thus, the retention of unmown groundcover increased the populations of adult Ch. micans in apple orchards.     

Field evaluation of efficacy and persistence of an insect vacuum device against the tarnished plant bug (Hemiptera: Miridae) in a day-neutral strawberry field

The efficacy of a vacuuming device to reduce Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois) populations was evaluated over 3 yr in a day-neutral strawberry field. Immediately after treatments, a significant reduction of population estimates (by tapping of flower clusters) was observed for adults (75% of the time) and nymphs (50% of the time). Under the same conditions, control (i.e., vacuum turbine off) treatments significantly reduced adult population estimates 25% of the time. Lygus lineolaris tapping samples taken from strawberry plants adjacent to the treated zone did not show significant variations over sampling time, suggesting that no escape behavior occurred. This was supported by adult catches on sticky traps located in zones adjacent to the treated one. Our results suggest that vacuuming had inconsistent effect on tarnished plant bug populations and that L. lineolaris mobility plays a marginal role in the use of this control method.     

Evaluation of monitoring traps with novel bait for navel orangeworm (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in California almond and pistachio orchards

Experiments conducted in three almond, Prunus dulcis (Rosales: Rosaceae), orchards and three pistachio, Pistacia vera (Sapindales: Anicardiaceae), orchards in 2009 and 2010, and determined that sticky bottom wing traps baited with ground pistachio mummies, or a combination of ground pistachio plus ground almond mummies, trapped more adult female navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), than did traps baited with ground almond mummies alone. During both years of this study, 2.9 and 1.8 more moths were caught in traps baited with pistachio mummies compared with traps baited with almond mummies in almond orchards and pistachio orchards, respectively. Also, traps located in pistachio orchards caught 5.9 and 8.3 times more navel orangeworm than were trapped from almond orchards in 2009 and 2010, respectively. Implications for use of this novel baited trap in almond and pistachio orchard integrated pest management programs are discussed.     

Spider abundance and diversity in apple orchards under three insect pest management programmes in Washington State,U.S.A.

1 Many apple growers in Washington State, U.S.A. use mating disruption (MD) for control of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus). Fewer applications of synthetic, broad‐spectrum insecticides are made in MD orchards than in orchards under conventional (C) management. Spider abundance and diversity in MD, C and certified organic (O) orchards were compared. Spiders inhabiting the trees (arboreal), the understory vegetation, and the ground surface were studied. 2 Total arboreal spider density and total understory spider density were significantly higher in O orchards than in MD and C orchards. Many species occurred in both the trees and the understory. 3 Arboreal, visually orientated, hunting spiders and arboreal ambushers/runners were significantly more abundant in O orchards compared to C and MD orchards. Visual hunters were significantly more abundant in MD compared to C orchards. Numbers of spiders in two other guilds (web‐makers and nocturnal hunters) showed no statistical differences with respect to orchard management type. 4 The highest density of ground surface‐dwelling spiders occurred in one of the O orchards. Two C orchards had higher densities than any MD orchard. Ground surface species were distinct from those in the understory and the trees. 5 With one exception, an orchard's arboreal fauna was most similar to that of another orchard under the same type of pest management. Three exceptions were noted among comparisons of the understory faunas. The ground surface‐dwelling fauna of one O orchard was distinctive, whereas that in the second O orchard was similar to the C and MD orchards. 6 Reduced use of synthetic, broad‐spectrum insecticides in MD orchards did not result in arboreal spider densities comparable to those found in O orchards. A contributing factor may be that all species were univoltine. Spider populations may thus be severely reduced by even a small number of synthetic, broad‐spectrum insecticide applications and the time required for recovery may be lengthy.     

Organic versus conventional management in an apple orchard: effects of fertilization and tree-row management on ground-dwelling predaceous arthropods

1 Organic and conventional management of apple orchards may have a different effect on arthropod communities.
2 We conducted a 3-year study to assess the effect of two strategies of fertilizer treatment (organic versus chemical) and three tree-row management systems (straw mulching, tillage and herbicide) on activity-density and biodiversity of epigeic predators. Ground beetles (Carabidae), rove beetles (Staphylinidae), ants (Formicidae) and spiders (Araneae) were sampled monthly with pitfall traps in the same apple orchard during 2003, 2004 and 2005.
3 A total of 4978 individuals were collected. Carabids (56.8% of the total catches) were the most abundant taxonomic group, followed by spiders (20.7%), ants (14.8%) and rove beetles (7.7%). Tree-row management had a greater influence on predator catches than fertilizer treatment. Total predator catches were lower under the mulch. Mulching also reduced carabid abundance, but increased staphylinid catches.
4 Tree row management also had a significant effect on biodiversity parameters. Species richness did not significantly differ among treatments for ants, spiders or the total catches, but was higher on herbicide-treated plots for carabids and on mulched plots for staphylinids. Shannon–Wiener's diversity index was significantly greater in the mulched and herbicide treated plots for total predators and carabids. For staphylinids, this index was significantly greater on the mulched plots. Fertilizer application strategy only influenced the species richness of rove beetles, which was greater in the chemically-treated plots.
5 The results showed that a change from conventional to organic fertilizer treatment of apple trees may be performed without differential effects on predator activity-density or biodiversity. However, a change from herbicide treatment to mulching or mechanical weed control may be significant, depending on the taxonomic group.     

Vertical distribution of codling moth adults in pheromone-treated and untreated plots

The vertical distribution of codling moth,Cydia pomonella (L.) within pheromone-treated and untreated apple and pear orchard canopies was determined using tethered virgin females, unbaited sticky traps, and blacklight observation of released moths. Mating of virgin females tethered at various heights in untreated orchard canopies increased with placement height from 1–4 m. Application of pheromone dispensers for mating disruption at 2 and 4 m above the ground greatly decreased mating. Greatest capture of males and females on unbaited sticky traps occurred at mid- and upper-canopy heights. Total capture of males and females in pheromone-treated plots was not statistically different than in untreated plots. The percentage of mated females captured on sticky traps did not vary with trap height or pheromone treatment. Released moths marked with flourescent powder and observed at dark with a blacklight indicated that moths are primarily distributed high in the canopy. However, males shifted to a position lower in the canopy when pheromone dispensers were placed 2.1 m above the ground. Results suggest that pheromone dispensers be placed in the upper canopy for optimal disruption of codling moth mating.     

Phenology of Lygus lineolaris (Hemiptera: Miridae) in Minnesota June-bearing strawberries: comparison of sampling methods and habitats

Field studies were conducted in southeastern Minnesota from 2000 to 2002 to determine the phenology of Lygus lineolaris in various habitats and to compare yellow and white sticky traps as a sampling method for adult L. lineolaris. Strawberry fields were sampled for L. lineolaris adults using yellow sticky traps, and nymphs were sampled using the standard white pan beat method. Adult L. lineolaris abundance in alfalfa, an adjacent fence-row, and a wooded habitat were also compared. The nonlinear relationship between cumulative trap catch and cumulative degree-days was modeled with a two-parameter cumulative Weibull function to predict early-season adult capture using yellow sticky traps. Adult L. lineolaris were detected in bearing-year strawberries at the onset of vegetative growth in all years. Yellow sticky traps caught significantly higher densities of adult L. lineolaris than white sticky traps. The Weibull model predicted 50% capture at 10 DD (>12.4 degrees C), which corresponds to the vegetative strawberry growth stage. L. lineolaris nymphs were not detected until the blossom stage. Alfalfa harbored significantly higher densities of L. lineolaris than other habitats during early-season sampling (i.e., March-June). Late-season sampling (July-September) revealed significantly higher densities in bearing-year strawberries. These results suggest that monitoring at the onset of vegetative growth, using yellow sticky traps, will be an efficient method for detecting early L. lineolaris adult activity.     

Odor-baited trap trees: a new approach to monitoring plum curculio (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

We compared a trap approach with a trap-tree approach to determine the need and timing of insecticide applications against overwintered adult plum curculios, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst.), in commercial apple orchards in Massachusetts in 2002. All traps and trap trees were baited with benzaldehyde (attractive fruit odor) plus grandisoic acid (attractive pheromone). Sticky clear Plexiglas panel traps placed at orchard borders, designed to intercept adults immigrating from border areas by flight, captured significantly more adults than similarly placed black pyramid traps, which are designed to capture adults immigrating primarily by crawling, or Circle traps wrapped around trunks of perimeter-row trees, which are designed to intercept adults crawling up tree trunks. None of these trap types, however, exhibited amounts of captures that correlated significantly with either weekly or season-long amounts of fresh ovipositional injury to fruit by adults. Hence, none appears to offer high promise as a tool for effectively monitoring the seasonal course of plum curculio injury to apples in commercial orchards in Massachusetts. In contrast, baiting branches of selected perimeter-row trees with benzaldehyde plus grandisoic acid led to significant aggregation (14-15-fold) of ovipositional injury, markedly facilitating monitoring of the seasonal course of injury to apples. A concurrent experiment revealed that addition of other synthetic fruit odor attractants to apple trees baited with benzaldehyde plus grandisoic acid did not enhance aggregation of ovipositional injury above that of this dual combination. We conclude that monitoring apples on odor-baited trap trees for fresh ovipositional injury could be a useful new approach for determining need and timing of insecticide application against plum curculio in commercial orchards.     

Influence of within-orchard trap placement on catch of codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in sex pheromone-treated orchards

The influence of trap placement on catches of codling moth, Cydia pomonella L., was examined in a series of studies conducted in orchards treated with Isomate-C Plus sex pheromone dispensers. Mark-recapture tests with sterilized moths released along the interface of pairs of treated and untreated apple and pear plots found that significantly more male but not female moths were recaptured on interception traps placed in the treated plots. In a second test, significantly higher numbers of wild male and female moths were caught on interception traps placed in treated versus untreated plots within a heavily infested orchard. The highest numbers of male moths were caught on traps placed along the interior edge of the treated plots. Trap position had no influence on the captures of female moths. In a third test, north-south transects of sex pheromone-baited traps were placed through adjacent treated and untreated plots that received a uniform release of sterilized moths. Traps on the upwind edge of the treated plots caught similar numbers of moths as traps upwind from the treated plots. Moth catch was significantly reduced at all other locations inside versus outside of the treated plots, including traps placed on the downwind edge of the treated plot. In a fourth test, five apple orchards were monitored with groups of sex pheromone-baited traps placed either on the border or at three distances inside the orchards. The highest moth counts were in traps placed at the border, and the lowest moth counts were in traps placed 30 and 50 m from the border. In a fifth test, the proportion of traps failing to catch any moths despite the occurrence of local fruit injury was significantly higher in traps placed 50 versus 25 m from the border. The implications provided by these data for designing an effective monitoring program for codling moth in sex pheromone-treated orchards are discussed.     

Effects of mowing frequency on densities of natural enemies in three Pacific Northwest pear orchards

Effects of mowing frequency on ground cover composition and on numbers of predators, parasitoids, and select phytophagous arthropods in the ground cover of three reduced‐insecticide pear orchards were determined. Concurrent samples taken in the tree canopy (with beating trays) and in the herbicide strips on the orchard floor (with pitfall traps) tested whether counts of natural enemies in these two habitats were also affected by mowing regime. A reduction in frequency of mowing from two to three times per month (= control) to once per month or once per growing season led to increased cover of grasses, broadleaf plants, and broadleaf plants in flower. Sweep net samples of natural enemies in the ground cover were dominated numerically by spiders (Araneae), parasitic Hymenoptera, and predatory Heteroptera, with lesser numbers of other taxa (Syrphidae, Neuroptera, Coccinellidae). Predators and parasitoids showed substantial increases in numbers associated with decreased mowing frequency. Sweep net counts of aphids, Lygus spp. (Heteroptera: Miridae), and leafhoppers/planthoppers, all potential prey of predators, also increased significantly with decreased mowing frequency. In the pitfall samples, only the European earwig (Forficula auricularia L.) (Dermaptera: Forficulidae) exhibited a change in counts associated with mowing treatment; numbers of earwigs in pitfall traps declined as mowing frequency decreased. For the beat tray samples, mean tray counts for most natural enemy taxa were higher in the less frequently mowed plots, but significantly (P < 0.05) so only for two taxa: spiders and a predatory mirid, Deraeocoris brevis (Uhler) (Heteroptera: Miridae). It remains to be determined whether biological control of pests in the tree canopy can be enhanced by manipulating mowing frequency. Questions raised by this study include whether there is extensive movement by natural enemies between the ground cover and tree canopy, and whether plot size affects the likelihood of showing that mowing frequency influences predator densities in the tree canopy.     

Evaluation of yellow sticky traps for monitoring the population of thrips (Thysanoptera) in a mango orchard

Populations of several thrips species were estimated using yellow sticky traps in an orchard planted with mango, Mangifera indica L. during the dry and wet seasons beginning in late 2008-2009 on Penang Island, Malaysia. To determine the efficacy of using sticky traps to monitor thrips populations, we compared weekly population estimates on yellow sticky traps with thrips population sizes that were determined (using a CO(2) method) directly from mango panicles. Dispersal distance and direction of thrips movement out of the orchard also were studied using yellow sticky traps placed at three distances from the edge of the orchard in four cardinal directions facing into the orchard. The number of thrips associated with the mango panicles was found to be correlated with the number of thrips collected using the sticky trap method. The number of thrips captured by the traps decreased with increasing distance from the mango orchard in all directions. Density of thrips leaving the orchard was related to the surrounding vegetation. Our results demonstrate that sticky traps have the potential to satisfactorily estimate thrips populations in mango orchards and thus they can be effectively employed as a useful tactic for sampling thrips.     

Genetic architecture in codling moth populations: comparison between microsatellite and insecticide resistance markers

The codling moth, Cydia pomonella, is renowned for developing resistance to insecticides and causing significant economic damage to pome fruits worldwide. In spite of its economic importance, little is known about the patterns of movement of this pest and the effects of insecticide treatment on the population genetic structure. Here, we investigated the genetic structure of the pest in 27 orchards from France, Italy, Armenia and Chile at seven microsatellite loci and two resistance markers [biochemical activity of cytochrome P450 oxidases and proportion of knockdown resistance (kdr) alleles in the sodium channel gene]. According to the microsatellite loci, we detected isolation by distance at the supranational scale but found no evidence of geographical structure among the 24 French orchards, which were mainly structured by the intensity of the insecticide treatments. Similarly, the highest levels of metabolic resistance associated with activity of the cytochrome P450 oxidases were detected in the most treated orchards. The kdr alleles were observed in southern France and Armenia where the pyrethroid insecticides were or have been intensively sprayed. The intensity of the insecticide treatments marginally affected the allelic richness in each orchard, but not the level of inbreeding. These results suggest important and high-distance gene flow among the codling moth populations, which were mainly structured according to the history of insecticide applications. Differences in mutation-migration-drift equilibrium among treated and untreated orchards also suggest that insecticide applications are the main force regulating the local dynamics of codling moth populations.     

Landscape analysis of adult codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) distribution and dispersal within typical agroecosystems dominated by apple production in central Chile

We analyzed the spatial distribution and dispersal of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), adults within two heterogeneous agroecosystems typical of central Chile: commercial apple, Malus domestica Borkhausen, orchards surrounded by various unmanaged host plants. Both a geostatistical analysis of catches of adult males with a grid of sex pheromone-baited traps and an immunological self-marking technique combined with traps baited with a male and female attractant were used. The spatial analyses identified the key sources of moths within these diverse landscapes. Codling moth catches in traps were spatially associated within distances of ≈ 150-300 m. Similarly, the mean distance from the immunological self-marking plots within the commercial apple orchard to the traps that captured marked adults was 282 m. In contrast, the mean distance in the capture of marked moths from unmanaged self-marking plots to a commercial orchard was 828 m. These data suggest that the success of any future area-wide management programs for codling moth in Chilean pome fruit must include a component for managing or removing noncommercial hosts that surround orchards. This analysis also suggests that the selection pressure for resistance imposed by insecticide sprays within managed orchards is likely dampened by the influx of susceptible moths from unmanaged sites common in central Chile.     

Effectiveness of odor-baited trap trees for plum curculio (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) monitoring in commercial apple orchards in the northeast

The plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst), is a key pest of pome and stone fruit in eastern and central North America. For effective management of this insect pest in commercial apple (Malus spp.) orchards in the northeastern United States and Canada, one of the greatest challenges has been to determine the need for and timing of insecticide applications that will protect apple fruit from injury by adults. In a 2004-2005 study, we assessed the efficacy and economic viability of a reduced-risk integrated pest management strategy involving an odor-baited trap tree approach to determine need for and timing of insecticide use against plum curculio based on appearance of fresh egg-laying scars. Evaluations took place in commercial apple orchards in seven northeastern U.S. states. More specifically, we compared the trap-tree approach with three calendar-driven whole-block sprays and with heat-unit accumulation models that predict how long insecticide should be applied to orchard trees to prevent injury by plum curculio late in the season. Trap tree plots received a whole-plot insecticide spray by the time of petal fall, and succeeding sprays (if needed) were applied to peripheral-row trees only, depending on a threshold of one fresh plum curculio egg-laying scar out of 25 fruit sampled from a single trap tree. In both years, level of plum curculio injury to fruit sampled from perimeter-row, the most interior-row trees and whole-plot injury in trap tree plots did not differ significantly from that recorded in plots subject to conventional management or in plots managed using the heat-unit accumulation approach. The amount of insecticide used in trap tree plots was reduced at least by 43% compared with plots managed with the conventional approach. Advantages and potential pitfalls of the bio-based trap tree approach to plum curculio monitoring in apple orchards are discussed.     

杀虫剂对湿地松粉蚧种群及其天敌的影响

湿地松粉蚧是于1988年传入我国广东省的一种重要林业外来入侵害虫。现在该害虫在我国的分布面积为35.52万公顷,严重影响着我国南方松林的生长健康。该害虫在其原产地美国南方并不造成大的危害,也不是一种主要害虫。只有当大量应用杀虫剂防治其它害虫时,由于杀死了其天敌,湿地松粉蚧种群才会明显增长。为控制这一外来入侵害虫,中美两国于1995年开展了从美国引进天敌防治广东省湿地松粉蚧的林业合作项目。本文报道了1996～1997年间在美国南方三个种子园使用杀虫剂防治球果种实害虫时,杀虫剂对湿地松粉蚧种群及其两种主要天敌有明显的影响,这也间接地说明了寄生性天敌对湿地松粉蚧在自然条件下的控制作用。相关分析显示湿地松粉蚧种群数量与其天敌是密切相关的,但杀虫剂可以打破这种平衡。这一方面说明从美国引进天敌防治湿地松粉蚧是可行的,另一方面也显示在美国采集湿地松粉蚧天敌应在使用过杀虫剂后的林分中。     

Spatial and temporal patterns of dispersal of western flower thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in nectarine orchards in British Columbia

Thrips were sampled from six nectarine orchards in the Dry Central Interior, British Columbia, Canada, between April and June 1993 using yellow sticky cards on posts spaced around the perimeter of each orchard. Although 12 identified species of thrips were captured, >90% of individuals were the western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande). The flight patterns and abundances of western flower thrips were compared between orchards located in two differently oriented valleys (N-S and E-W) and between orchards located close to or far from areas of wild land. Results indicate that densities of western flower thrips entering orchards, and their direction of movement, were related more to the external vegetation than either location within the two different valleys or general wind flow patterns. Western flower thrips tended to move into orchards close to ground level in early spring (late April and early May) but flew higher as ground cover grew taller and temperatures increased. Densities of western flower thrips at ground level were highest in an orchard with the densest dandelion ground cover. We conclude that the location of nectarine orchards in relation to wild areas is a major determinate of western flower thrips densities.