金丝桃属和三腺金丝桃属植物叶的红外光谱分析及其与分类群鉴定的相关性

利用傅里叶红外光谱仪和OMINI采样器直接迅速准确地测定金丝桃属(Hypericum L.)9组43种1亚种1变种和三腺金丝桃属(Triadenum Raf)2种植物的红外光谱,结果表明:各分类群(种)的红外光谱具有高度特异性和重现性,这两属及其金丝桃属组间的红外光谱图存在较大的差异,而组内种间红外光谱图的差异较小,同种不同分布区和不同发育时期的叶的红外光谱几无差别;其红外光谱图的变化可以作为这两属植物的分类依据之.这也暗示利用已知的标准红外光谱图库,可以区分和鉴定出这两属或其他属植物的种类.     

Life histories of Clethrionomys and Microtus (Microtinae)

Although there have been numerous life-history reviews of mammals at high taxonomic levels (e.g. among families within orders), there are far fewer studies at lower taxonomic levels (e.g. among species within genera). Data on adult weights, litter size, gestation length, neonate weight, age and weight at weaning, growth rate to weaning, maximum life span, and length of the breeding season were compiled from the literature on five species of Clethrionomys and 33 species of Microtus. Variability in litter size and male body weights was not significantly different when compared between cyclic and non-cyclic populations. Coefficients of variation were also calculated for the three species with the most data (C. gapperi, C. glareolus and M. pennsylvanicus ). These values showed that the amount of intraspecific variation differed among traits as well as among species. Gestation length was the most invariable of all traits and variation in adult weights, neonate weight, gestation length, and litter size had similar values to those reported for Peromyscus maniculatus. Five and eight traits differed among Clethrionomys and Microtus species, respectively. Differences in litter size, adult weights and length of the breeding season were common to both genera. Male weight, gestation length and neonate weight as well as length of the breeding season were different between genera. Very few traits covaried within C. gapperi, C. glareolus or M. pennsylvanicus. Similarly, few traits covaried among all Clethrionomys populations. However, among all Microtus populations and Microtus species, 11 and 12 correlations were significant. Many of the patterns found in Microtus involved positive relationships between female weight and some other trait. These patterns have also been found by broader surveys at higher taxonomic levels. Large species of Microtus had larger offspring, a greater litter size and occurred in short-season environments relative to small species of this genus.     

Assessment of Isolated Wetland Condition in Florida Using Epiphytic Diatoms at Genus, Species, and Subspecies Taxonomic Resolution

Diatoms are useful indicators of aquatic conditions, and metrics based on published autecological indicator values have been developed utilizing their sensitivities to various ambient physical and chemical conditions. The autecological values often differ within genera, and indeed within species taxonomic levels, requiring identification to subspecies taxonomic level for accurate application. This study was conducted to determine if autecological metrics, and ultimately indices of biotic integrity, could be developed using mean autecological values at the genus, species, and subspecies taxonomic levels, and to investigate the potential benefits of increased taxonomic resolution. Sixty-nine isolated herbaceous wetlands in various land use modalities in peninsular Florida were sampled a single time for epiphytic diatoms, and soil/water physicochemical parameters. Thirty genera, 148 species, and 26 subspecies were identified. The proportional matrices at each taxonomic level were highly similar (Mantel’s r > 0.75, P < 0.0001). Autecological metrics and two sensitive or tolerant measures were developed at each taxonomic level. Wetland condition, as determined by summed metric values, was strongly correlated across taxonomic level (r ² > 0.83, P < 0.0001), and no significant difference was found when sites were placed into bins of excellent, good, fair, or poor, based on quartile scoring, for each taxonomic level. Specific conductance, soil pH, soil and water total phosphorous, and water color were significantly related to site non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) ordination scores at each taxonomic level. This study concludes that indices of biotic integrity, when developed using autecological indices, provide similar qualitative conditional information across taxonomic levels for isolated herbaceous wetlands. Electronic supplementary Material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Macroecology of Aquatic Insects: A Quantitative Analysis of Taxonomic Richness and Composition in the Andes Mountains of Northern Ecuador

To determine the spatial dynamics of Neotropical lotic insect species, specimens were collected from 41 streams on the eastern and western flanks of the Andes Mountains in Ecuador. We examined the manner in which taxonomic richness and composition differed with elevation, latitude, and versant. Statistical analyses were limited to 5 families (Ephemeroptera: Baetidae, Leptohyphidae, Oligoneuriidae; Heteroptera: Naucoridae; Coleoptera: Elmidae), comprising 32 genera and 85 species, for which identifications or morphospecies assignments were reliable. Assessment of taxonomic diversity was based on the richness of genera and species at each site. In addition, each site was characterized by species richness within each of 4 families with more than 10 species. The effects of versant and transect on composition and structure were family‐specific. Mean site differences between versants in elmid richness at generic and specific levels depended on transect. Only baetid richness was affected by versant and transect in a consistent manner. Variation among sites in composition based on all genera and species was captured using multidimensional scaling (MDS). Subsequent MANOVAs based on scores from MDS axes revealed that differences between versants were much stronger in the southern transect, although transects differed from each other at specific and generic levels. A Jaccard's similarity matrix was computed for each family to reflect the spatial organization of taxonomic composition. Mesogeographic patterns of species composition for each of the four families were correlated (Mantel analysis) at both the regional level and at the level of the entire study area. At the regional level, the only pair of families to exhibit correlated patterns of species composition was elmids and naucorids in the southwestern region. The pattern of species composition for each family was correlated with the patterns for one or more other families at the level of the entire study area. Thus, spatial dynamics of species composition was similar for the families examined, suggesting that the Andes exert a consistent influence on species distributions within families, regardless of ordinal affiliation. At a local scale, however, the way in which taxonomic composition changed with latitude and versant was family‐specific. Mayflies, the most vagile of the taxa studied, had the highest percentage of species overlap between versants. Of three genera of Naucoridae collected, species of Ambrysus, of probable Mexican origin, were found only on the eastern versant, corroborating other evidence that the genus is recent in South America. Moreover, dispersion by Ambrysus across the Andes Mountains may not have occurred, as it has for Cryphocricos and Limnocoris, which are of probable South American origin.     

Species-typical patterns of infant contact, sleeping site use and social cohesion among nocturnal primates in Africa

This paper provides a checklist and summary of what is currently known of the variation in infant contact, sleeping site preference and aspects of social cohesion in the nocturnal primates of Africa. Genera and species are compared, based on previously unpublished field observations and a review of the literature. There is a clear pattern of similarity between the species within each genus and distinct differences between genera. Species in the same genus tend to be ecologically equivalent and replace each other allopatrically, whereas species in different genera are more likely to be sympatric, with up to 6 species living together. Maximum sympatry within genera is found in Otolemur and Galagoides, where species are ecologically divergent. This may reflect an ancient origin of species within these genera or suggest that further taxonomic revision is required at the generic level. Some data are recorded for the first time for species that have only recently been separated (cryptic species), but some taxa remain very poorly known. It is concluded that field studies are still at an elementary stage and further research with radio tracking is urgently needed in the face of rapidly declining habitats.     

Host Plant Specialization and Species Turnover of Caterpillars Among Hosts in the Brazilian Cerrado

Decrease in the species composition similarity of herbivore assemblages with increasing phylogenetic distance between host plants is a widespread pattern. Here we used data for caterpillars in the Brazilian Cerrado to investigate how the similarity in caterpillar species composition decreases as the taxonomic level and genetic distance (GD) of their host plants increases. In addition, we elucidate the plant taxonomic level that provides the greatest contribution to turnover in the caterpillar species composition among host taxa. Adult Lepidoptera were reared from caterpillars collected from 52 plants over 13 yr in the same area, with each host plant sampled for 1 yr. Most species were specialists, with 66 percent of genus specialists among the nonsingleton species. The similarity in caterpillar species composition across plant taxa decreased from host species to genera, and from host genera to orders. Above this level, the similarity was consistently low. The GD between plants explained 82 percent of the variation in the similarity of caterpillar species composition. The contribution of caterpillar species turnover among host orders from the same superorder and among host superorders from the same subclass explained 70 percent of the caterpillar species richness as a whole. Our results lend support to the view that most tropical caterpillars are host specialists. Our findings further indicate that the number of orders and superorders of plants provide the greatest contribution to the total caterpillar richness compared with all of the other host taxonomic levels combined. Abstract in Portuguese is available at http://www.blackwell‐synergy.com/loi/btp .     

Global patterns of guild composition and functional diversity of spiders

The objectives of this work are: (1) to define spider guilds for all extant families worldwide; (2) test if guilds defined at family level are good surrogates of species guilds; (3) compare the taxonomic and guild composition of spider assemblages from different parts of the world; (4) compare the taxonomic and functional diversity of spider assemblages and; (5) relate functional diversity with habitat structure. Data on foraging strategy, prey range, vertical stratification and circadian activity was collected for 108 families. Spider guilds were defined by hierarchical clustering. We searched for inconsistencies between family guild placement and the known guild of each species. Richness and abundance per guild before and after correcting guild placement were compared, as were the proportions of each guild and family between all possible pairs of sites. Functional diversity per site was calculated based on hierarchical clustering. Eight guilds were discriminated: (1) sensing, (2) sheet, (3) space, and (4) orb web weavers; (5) specialists; (6) ambush, (7) ground, and (8) other hunters. Sixteen percent of the species richness corresponding to 11% of all captured individuals was incorrectly attributed to a guild by family surrogacy; however, the correlation of uncorrected vs. corrected guilds was invariably high. The correlation of guild richness or abundances was generally higher than the correlation of family richness or abundances. Functional diversity was not always higher in the tropics than in temperate regions. Families may potentially serve as ecological surrogates for species. Different families may present similar roles in the ecosystems, with replacement of some taxa by other within the same guild. Spiders in tropical regions seem to have higher redundancy of functional roles and/or finer resource partitioning than in temperate regions. Although species and family diversity were higher in the tropics, functional diversity seems to be also influenced by altitude and habitat structure.     

金丝桃属和三腺金丝桃属植物叶的红外光谱分析及其与分类群鉴定的相关性

利用傅里叶红外光谱仪和OMINI采样器直接迅速准确地测定金丝桃属 (Hypericum L.) 9组43种1亚种1变种和三腺金丝桃属(Triadenum Raf.) 2种植物的红外光谱,结果表明:各分类群(种)的红外光谱具有高度特异性和重现性,这两属及其金丝桃属组间的红外光谱图存在较大的差异,而组内种间红外光谱图的差异较小,同种不同分布区和不同发育时期的叶的红外光谱几无差别;其红外光谱图的变化可以作为这两属植物的分类依据之一。这也暗示利用已知的标准红外光谱图库,可以区分和鉴定出这两属或其他属植物的种类。     

Taxonomic and structural similarities in soil oribatid communities

We examined the taxonomic and structural concordance between oribatid mite communities at different sites from around the world using meta-analysis. The study explored similarities in the taxonomie composition and species abundance distributions among oribatid mite communities using 25 published species lists from Africa, Australia, Europe. Japan. Malaysia, New Zealand and the United States, The final data set contained 253 genera from 97 families in 43 superfamilies, A second data set, which included only studies where trees were present at the sites, contained 234 genera, 93 families and 41 superfamilies. Composition was analysed at taxonomic levels higher than species. Only two families and four superfamilies were present in > 90% of all studies. Two genera, six families and seven superfamilies were found in all sites with trees. Common families were different among habitats suggesting that habitat preferences may be expressed at the family level. There were very strong relationships between oribatid mite species richness and richness at higher taxonomic levels with r² values for regression relationships > 0.8. Few species at a site were from the same genus, family or superfamily. Species abundance distributions were remarkably consistent between studies with the three most dominant species each constituting > 10% of the oribatid individuals. Overall, similar factors may determine the relative proportions of soil-dwelling oribatid species at a site.     

Characterization of Enterobacteria by Starch-Gel Electrophoresis of Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase and Phosphogluconate Dehydrogenase

Specific activities and electrophoretic mobilities of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and phosphogluconate dehydrogenase were determined in 38 isolates of the family Enterobacteriaceae and in 10 isolates of the related Pasteurella. The deficiency of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in P. pestis was verified. Enzymes obtained from different strains of the same species exhibited an unexpected degree of heterogeneity. For example, 8 and 11 apparent variants of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, respectively, were found in 14 strains of Escherichia coli. Although similar frequencies of heterogeneity were noted in 7 strains of P. pseudotuberculosis, 5 species of Shigella, and 8 species of Salmonella, differences in mobility were generally small in comparison with those observed between strains of E. coli. Values obtained for the pasteurellae, shigellae, and salmonellae, thus fell within narrow ranges that may prove typical for the genera. However, most of these ranges, as well as many values observed for single species of other genera, were overlapped by the wide range recorded for E. coli. The significance of this observation was discussed with respect to the relative age and taxonomic position of the organisms in question. The method could be used to distinguish between most wild-type strains of the same species and should thus facilitate investigations of genetic transfer and epidemiology.     

Significance of hind wing morphology in distinguishing genera and species of cantharid beetles with a geometric morphometric analysis

There remain some difficulties in delimitation of related genera or sibling species for cantharid beetles, because the traditionally taxonomic method and morphological characters have not been updated or introduced. In the present study, we firstly use the landmark-based geometric morphometrics to analyze and compare the hind wings of nine species belonging to three genera of Cantharinae to ascertain whether this approach may be used as a reliable method in the study of the taxonomy of this group. The results show that the shape differences of the hind wings among genera seem more variable than that within each genus, and the variations for each species are different from one another, as shown in the principal component analyses. And the canonical variates analyses show that there are significant differences among the genera and the species of each genus, which demonstrates that the hind wing shape can be diagnostic for both generic and specific identification of the cantharid beetles. This study sheds new light into clarifying the taxonomic uncertainties of Cantharidae, and lays a foundation for further studies on the evolution of the cantharid hind wing shape.     

Taxonomic scale-dependence of habitat niche partitioning and biotic neighbourhood on survival of tropical tree seedlings

In order to differentiate between mechanisms of species coexistence, we examined the relative importance of local biotic neighbourhood, abiotic habitat factors and species differences as factors influencing the survival of 2330 spatially mapped tropical tree seedlings of 15 species of Myristicaceae in two separate analyses in which individuals were identified first to species and then to genus. Using likelihood methods, we selected the most parsimonious candidate models as predictors of 3 year seedling survival in both sets of analyses. We found evidence for differential effects of abiotic niche and neighbourhood processes on individual survival between analyses at the genus and species levels. Niche partitioning (defined as an interaction of taxonomic identity and abiotic neighbourhood) was significant in analyses at the genus level, but did not differentiate among species in models of individual seedling survival. By contrast, conspecific and congeneric seedling and adult density were retained in the minimum adequate models of seedling survival at species and genus levels, respectively. We conclude that abiotic niche effects express differences in seedling survival among genera but not among species, and that, within genera, community and/or local variation in adult and seedling abundance drives variation in seedling survival. These data suggest that different mechanisms of coexistence among tropical tree taxa may function at different taxonomic or phylogenetic scales. This perspective helps to reconcile perceived differences of importance in the various non-mutually exclusive mechanisms of species coexistence in hyper-diverse tropical forests.     

Species confirmation of fungal isolates by molecular analysis

Traditional taxonomy of hyphomycetes has been based on conidial morphology and development. In order to confirm species level for the detection and identification of the entomopathogenic fungus, we analysed the species-specific fingerprints to investigate molecular characteristics within isolates of six species and to resolve morphologically atypical isolates. The extent of fingerprint profile observed by RAPD was sufficient to confirm the species level of all the isolates. The genetic similarity among morphologically identified isolates of each species was considerably higher, allowing us to conclude that all the isolates are of same species. These results establish a molecular framework for further taxonomic, phylogenetic and comparative biological investigations.     

Genus age,provincial area and the taxonomic structure of marine faunas

Species are unevenly distributed among genera within clades and regions, with most genera species-poor and few species-rich. At regional scales, this structure to taxonomic diversity is generated via speciation, extinction and geographical range dynamics. Here, we use a global database of extant marine bivalves to characterize the taxonomic structure of climate zones and provinces. Our analyses reveal a general, Zipf–Mandelbrot form to the distribution of species among genera, with faunas from similar climate zones exhibiting similar taxonomic structure. Provinces that contain older taxa and/or encompass larger areas are expected to be more species-rich. Although both median genus age and provincial area correlate with measures of taxonomic structure, these relationships are interdependent, nonlinear and driven primarily by contrasts between tropical and extra-tropical faunas. Provincial area and taxonomic structure are largely decoupled within climate zones. Counter to the expectation that genus age and species richness should positively covary, diverse and highly structured provincial faunas are dominated by young genera. The marked differences between tropical and temperate faunas suggest strong spatial variation in evolutionary rates and invasion frequencies. Such variation contradicts biogeographic models that scale taxonomic diversity to geographical area.     

RECOMBINATION AND MIGRATION RATES IN NATURAL POPULATIONS OF BACILLUS SUBTILIS AND BACILLUS MOJAVENSIS

We have investigated the rates of recombination and migration in native populations of two closely related, naturally competent Bacillus species. Native soil isolates of Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus mojavensis were obtained from three continents and, within North America, from populations at a range of geographical distances from one another. The rate of recombination within populations of each species was estimated from restriction-site data for three genes. Recombination was shown to occur within each species at about the same rate as neutral mutation, whatever the geographical scale or phylogenetic scale over which strains were sampled. The rate of migration between populations was estimated by a cladistic analysis and was shown to be high (i.e., Nm > 1), even among populations on different continents. The level of migration within each species is sufficient to prevent neutral geographical divergence within species.     

The strength of negative plant–soil feedback increases from the intraspecific to the interspecific and the functional group level

One of the processes that may play a key role in plant species coexistence and ecosystem functioning is plant–soil feedback, the effect of plants on associated soil communities and the resulting feedback on plant performance. Plant–soil feedback at the interspecific level (comparing growth on own soil with growth on soil from different species) has been studied extensively, while plant–soil feedback at the intraspecific level (comparing growth on own soil with growth on soil from different accessions within a species) has only recently gained attention. Very few studies have investigated the direction and strength of feedback among different taxonomic levels, and initial results have been inconclusive, discussing phylogeny, and morphology as possible determinants. To test our hypotheses that the strength of negative feedback on plant performance increases with increasing taxonomic level and that this relationship is explained by morphological similarities, we conducted a greenhouse experiment using species assigned to three taxonomic levels (intraspecific, interspecific, and functional group level). We measured certain fitness‐related aboveground traits and used them along literature‐derived traits to determine the influence of morphological similarities on the strength and direction of the feedback. We found that the average strength of negative feedback increased from the intraspecific over the interspecific to the functional group level. However, individual accessions and species differed in the direction and strength of the feedback. None of our results could be explained by morphological dissimilarities or individual traits. Synthesis. Our results indicate that negative plant–soil feedback is stronger if the involved plants belong to more distantly related species. We conclude that the taxonomic level is an important factor in the maintenance of plant coexistence with plant–soil feedback as a potential stabilizing mechanism and should be addressed explicitly in coexistence research, while the traits considered here seem to play a minor role.     

Differences in functional trait responses to elevation among feeding guilds of Aculeata community

The response of communities to environmental change is expected to vary among feeding guilds. To evaluate the response of guilds to environmental factors without considering the taxonomic specificities, it is useful to examine Aculeata bees and wasps, which consist of closely related taxa including different guilds, pollinators, predators, and parasitoids. In this study, we evaluated changes in species diversity (SD) and functional traits of each feeding guild along an elevational gradient in a boreal forest in northern Japan. We used yellow pan traps to collect Aculeata bees and wasps at 200–1600 m above sea level. We investigated six functional traits (trophic level, seasonal duration, body size, elevational range, nesting position, and soil dependency) and the horizontal distribution of the species. The SD of all Aculeata, predators, and parasitoids decreased with an increase in elevation; however, the SD of pollinators did not show any specific trend. Although the functional trait composition of all Aculeata species did not show any trend, that of each feeding guild responded to elevation in different ways. Pollinators increased in body size and showed a decrease in seasonal duration with increasing elevation, suggesting that tolerance and seasonal escape from physical stress at high elevations are important for shaping pollinator communities. Predators increased their elevational range and the proportion of above‐ground nesting species increased with increasing elevation, suggesting that the ability to live in a wider range of environments and avoid unsuitable soil environments at high elevations might be important. Parasitoids changed their hosts and displayed variable traits with increasing elevation, suggesting that brood parasitoids have difficulty in surviving at high elevation. The traits for each guild responded in different ways, even if they were dominated by the same environmental factors. Our findings imply that differences in the responses of functional traits would produce different community assembly patterns in different guilds during further climate change.     

Comparative analysis of cyanobacteria in the rhizosphere and as endosymbionts of cycads in drought-affected soils

Does the diversity of cyanobacteria in the cycad rhizosphere relate to the cyanobiont species found in the coralloid roots of these ancient plants? The aim of this study was to identify the diversity of soil cyanobacteria occurring in the immediate vicinity of 22 colonized coralloid roots belonging to members of the cycad genera: Macrozamia, Lepidozamia, Bowenia and Cycas. The majority of coralloid roots were sampled at depths >?10?cm below the soil surface. A total of 32 cyanobacterial isolates were cultured and their 16S rRNA gene partially sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis revealed nine operational taxonomic units of soil cyanobacteria comprising 30 Nostoc spp., a Tolypothrix sp. and a Leptolyngbya sp. Microscopy indicated that all isolates were unialgal and confirmed their genus identity. Rhizospheric diversity was compared to existing data on cyanobionts isolated at the same time from the cycad coralloid root. The same isolate was present in both the cycad coralloid root and rhizosphere at only six sites. Phylogenetic evidence indicates that most rhizosphere isolates were distinct from root cyanobionts. This weak relationship between the soil cyanobacteria and cycad cyanobionts might indicate that changes in the soil community composition are due to environmental factors.     

Trichinella pseudospiralis populations of the Palearctic region and their relationship with populations of the Nearctic and Australian regions

Since few non-encapsulated isolates of Trichinella have been studied to date, their level of differentiation from encapsulated species and the taxonomic value of the observed polymorphisms remain to be determined. To this end, biological, biochemical and molecular data from 11 isolates of Trichinella pseudospiralis and one isolate of Trichinella papuae were examined using the broad group of encapsulated species and genotypes for comparison. Single-worm cross-breeding experiments and reproductivity capacity indices revealed F1 progeny only among T. pseudospiralis isolates from different zoogeographical regions, whereas no F1 were produced when T. pseudospiralis was crossed with T. papuae. Furthermore, unlike T. pseudospiralis, T. papuae failed to infect chickens. Comparative analysis of 12 allozymes revealed a single difference between Nearctic and Australian isolates of T. pseudospiralis, but substantial differences when compared with T. papuae (i.e. two unique and six diagnostic markers). Molecular studies involving mitochondrial-derived genes encoding cytochrome oxidase I and the large subunit ribosomal DNA indicated a high level of sequence similarity among T. pseudospiralis isolates; however, a concomitantly high level of variation was observed in expansion segment five of the genomic large subunit ribosomal DNAs among T. pseudospiralis isolates and between this species and T. papuae. Collectively, these results demonstrate high uniformity among isolates of T. pseudospiralis from Eurasia and polymorphism among isolates of T. pseudospiralis belonging to different zoogeographical regions; the results corroborate the classification of T. papuae as a differentiated species.