High red deer density depresses body mass of roe deer fawns

Many previous studies have pointed out that, when resources are limited, the potential for competition should be high among sympatric species that display overlaps in habitat and nutritional niches. However, reliable evidence of competition between red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) has not been yet reported for life history traits directly measuring performance such as body mass, reproduction, or survival. From long-term monitoring of deer populations in the reserve of La Petite Pierre (France), we measured the sex-specific responses of roe deer fawn body mass to changes in red deer density after accounting for possible confounding effects of date of shooting, climatic conditions, and roe deer density. As expected under the hypothesis of competition, red deer density in a given year had a marked negative influence on body mass of roe deer fawns born the same year and the following year. Fawn mass of roe deer males and females responded in similar ways to changes in red deer density. Our study provides the first evidence of a negative response of roe deer performance to high red deer density.     

The consequences for deer of ingesting oilseed rape (Brassica napus): feeding experiments with roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus)

In two experiments, in the growing season March–May, freshly harvested double-low oilseed rape ( Brassica napus ) plants were fed ad libitum to penned roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ) and red deer ( Cervus elaphus ). In Experiment 1, oilseed rape was fed to five roe and 12 red deer as 60% of their daily dry matter (DM) intake for four weeks, after a two-week dietary change-over period. The rest of the diet comprised cattle-rearing pellets (33%) and freshly cut heather ( Calluna vulgaris ) plants (7%). In Experiment 2, oilseed rape was fed to seven roe and eight red deer as 100% of the diet for up to six weeks, after a two-week change-over period.
In both experiments, Heinz bodies were found in roe deer blood 2–3 weeks after the start of the change-over period, with a fall in mean packed cell volume (PCV) and blood glutathione (GSH) concentration. In Experiment 2, after 5–8 days of feeding on 100% oilseed rape, four roe deer showed signs of inappetance and were changed to a diet of 80% oilseed rape. At the same time, the other three roe deer had very low PCV (< 60% of normal values) and oilseed rape feeding was discontinued for those animals. The red deer showed no symptoms of haemolytic damage nor any change in blood GSH concentration in either experiment, but showed a gradual fall in PCV in Experiment 2. No other ill-effects were observed in any of the animals.
Intakes of oilseed rape (gDM/kg^0–75/day) were lower for the roe deer than the red deer in both experiments. The severity of haemolytic anaemia in the roe deer was related to the proportion of oilseed rape in the diet, rather than the amount ingested. It was concluded that the health of roe deer ingesting oilseed rape may be affected if other foods are not available.     

Molecular identification of seven Sarcocystis species in red deer (Cervus elaphus) from Lithuania

The diaphragm muscles of 77 free-ranging red deer (Cervus elaphus) were examined for Sarcocystis species in Lithuania. Sarcocysts were detected in 61 out of 77 (79.2%) animals investigated. A total of 60 isolated sarcocysts were identified to species using subunit I of cytochrome c oxidase (cox1) sequence analysis. Overall, seven species, S. entzerothi, S. hjorti, S. iberica, S. linearis, S. pilosa, S. truncata and S. venatoria, were confirmed in Lithuanian red deer. Sarcocystis entzerothi was reported in red deer for the first time. Previously this species was shown to use sika deer as well as roe deer and fallow deer as an intermediate host. Based on cox1, with the addition of the current data, altogether 13 Sarcocystis species have so far been shown to use red deer as an intermediate host. Species detected in red deer demonstrated considerable differences in intraspecific genetic variation at cox1. Genetic distances between different samples of S. hjorti and S. linearis were calculated using principal coordinates analysis (PCoA), implying molecular divergence of same Sarcocystis species using different hosts in the same geographical area and divergence of those employing same intermediate host species from different areas.     

Microsatellite investigation of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in Scandinavia reveals genetic differentiation of a Baltic Sea Island population

After a decline in the early 19th century, a remnant population of the Scandinavian roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) was protected in southern Sweden around 1840. The roe deer quickly recovered and recolonized most of the Scandinavian Peninsula. In this study, I analyze microsatellite variation in 14 roe deer populations in Scandinavia to (1) investigate if all Swedish roe deer trace their ancestry to southern Sweden, (2) define other areas where roe deer may have remained during the population decline, and (3) examine if the large geographic distances during the expansion phase have influenced the degree and sorting of genetic variation. The results show that the mainland roe deer most likely trace their ancestry to southern Sweden, but interestingly, the two neighboring populations Övedskloster and Wittskövle in the south are significantly different from each other (p<0.01). Furthermore, the population in Wittskövle and roe deer from Köpingsvik at the Baltic Sea Island Öland are significantly different from all other populations (p<0.1). Thus, potentially, there are more than one founder population that contributed to the current Swedish population. The particular differentiation of roe deer from Öland might be an effect of random population genetic processes during the population expansion phase, potentially in combination with introductions of roe deer from other areas than the Swedish mainland. The results are discussed in relation to management of roe deer in Sweden.     

Autumn-winter diet overlap of fallow, red, and roe deer in forest ecosystems, Southern Poland

The wild population of fallow deer in Central Europe has grown considerably over the last decade. However, information on feeding habits of this alien species in relation to the indigenous red deer or roe deer, in areas of their co-occurrence, is scarce. A prevailing view maintains that their food-niches are distinct, although direct comparative studies have not been carried out. Therefore, the aim of the research was to compare the diets of fallow, red, and roe deer feeding in the same habitat. Research was based on the rumen contents of 242 animals hunted in the autumn-winter season in the forests of Southern Poland. The analyses demonstrated that fallow deer are moderate grazers in such conditions and eat more graminoids in comparison to red or roe deer (36.4% vs. 16.1% or 5.5%, respectively). On the other hand, it feeds on less browse (17.2% vs. 41.4%) or dwarf shrubs (8.4% vs. 19.0%) than red deer, and on less bramble (10.9% vs. 34.6%) or forbs (4.0% vs. 7.6%) in comparison to roe deer (P=0.05). Although the diets of the three deer species differ in terms of the proportion of each food type in their diet, overlapping of their food-niches is high (52.6%).     

There is only one winner: The negative impact of red deer density on roe deer numbers and distribution in the Słowiński National Park and its vicinity

Red and roe deer are the most numerous cervids in Europe, and they occur in sympatry in most regions. Roe deer were considered to be an inferior competitor in studies in which they co‐occurred with fallow deer or muntjac. Despite the remarkable overlap of their ranges, there are few studies on the competition between the red and roe deer. Since interspecific interactions among ungulates are often related to their mutual densities, the current study focused on the effects of high red deer density on the roe deer numbers and spatial distribution in the unhunted Słowiński National Park (SNP) in northern Poland and forest districts open to hunting bordering the park. Using fecal pellet group counts, it was found that in the forest districts (where red deer densities were 2–3 times lower than in the SNP), roe deer densities were significantly higher than in the park. The red‐to‐roe deer density ratio was 10.8 and 2.7, in the SNP and the surrounding forest districts, respectively. Moreover, in the SNP, the roe deer distribution was negatively affected by the red deer habitat use, while in the hunting areas, such an effect was not recorded. The negative influence of the red deer on the roe deer population in the park was most probably due to the red deer impact on food availability. The biomass of the plant groups forming the staple food of the roe deer (Rubus spp., forbs, dwarf shrubs) was significantly higher in the fenced plots than in the unfenced ones. Lack of hunting in the protected areas may benefit only some species in ungulate assemblages which, in turn, may contradict one of their objectives—to maintain viable and ecologically functional populations.     

Selenium concentration in liver and kidney of free living animals (roe and red deer) from West Pomerania (Poland)

The aim of this study was to determine concentrations of selenium in the liver and kidneys of roe deer and red deer from West Pomerania, depending on the season. Altogether, samples from 169 animals were collected (96 from roe deer and 73 from red deer) in 2003–2007. The mean concentration of selenium in the liver of red deer and roe deer was 0.37 μg/g and 0.62 μg/g dry weight, respectively. In kidneys, Se concentration was 2.72 μg/g d.w. in red deer and 2.99 μg/g d.w. in roe deer. In roe deer, liver selenium concentration in autumn was significantly higher than in winter (P < 0.05) and spring (P < 0.01) and significantly lower in spring than in summer (P < 0.05); likewise, kidney selenium concentration was higher in autumn than in summer. In deer, no statistically significant season-related differences were observed for liver selenium concentrations. In red deer kidneys, selenium concentration was the lowest in summer, significantly lower than in autumn and winter. Low selenium concentrations in the analyzed tissues show that the animals live in areas deficient in this element.     

The relative densities of red (Cervus elaphus) and roe (Capreolus capreolus) deer and their relationship in Scottish plantation forests

Population densities of red and roe deer were estimated in 20 conifer plantations throughout central and northern Scotland. Ten forests were selected on the basis of culling records that were considered likely to cover the range of possible densities. Ten further forests were selected at random to investigate the relationship between red and roe deer densities. Density assessment was by standing-crop dung-group counts, on 1.5 x 100 m transects. Dung decay rates were estimated in four areas and used to convert the values to deer densities. Red deer densities were estimated to range from 0.3-35 km⁻²; roe deer densities ranged from 0.5-25 km⁻². Preferences for different structural habitats within individual forests (i.e. blocks with different age classes of tree) were inferred from dung densities. Red deer preferred unplanted ground, open-thicket, and prethicket; roe deer likewise preferred prethicket (highly) and open-thicket. Both species avoided closed-canopy habitats. Red and roe deer densities were negatively correlated and the relationship was significant when the data were log transformed ( P < 0.05).     

How does oak mast seeding affect the feeding behavior of sympatric red and roe deer?

Oak reproduction is characterized by mast seeding with high inter-annual fluctuations in fruit production. Such resource pulses can greatly affect ecosystem functioning and may cause seed consumers to alter their mobility, demography, or diet. Consequences of mast seeding for seed consumers remain poorly understood as their long timescale makes them difficult to study. We investigated impacts of oak mast seeding on the feeding behavior of two sympatric European deer species: red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). We analyzed their rumen content over a 31-year period in tandem with 10 years of data on oak fructification (i.e. 8 years of field monitoring and two modelled years). Acorn production is strongly correlated with consumption by both deer species. In years of high fructification, acorns represent more than 50% and 35% of red and roe deer diet, respectively, confirming assumptions that deer favor acorns when these are available. Red deer eat more acorns than roe deer both between and within years. High acorn production in mast years appears to saturate the capacity of deer to consume acorns. As the proportion of acorns increase in their diet, red deer eat more grasses and less conifer browse. No dietary shift was found for roe deer. By inducing dietary shifts in consumers, oak mast seeding can have cascading effects on ecosystem processes, notably on the damages on conifers caused by red deer and the consequences for forest dynamics.     

Antibodies to granulocytic Ehrlichia in moose, red deer, and roe deer in Norway

Serum samples from 104 moose (Alces alces), 124 red deer (Cervus elaphus) and 114 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), collected from different counties in southern Norway from 1994 to 2000, were analysed by an indirect immunofluorescent antibody staining method for antibodies to Ehrlichia equi. The overall seroprevalences for granulocytic Ehrlichia spp. in moose, red deer, and roe deer from Ixodes ricinus infested counties were 43%, 55%, and 96%, respectively. Antibody prevalence was significantly higher in roe deer than in moose and red deer (P < 0.001). Mean antibody titers (log10 +/- SD) to E. equi in sera from moose, red deer, and roe deer were 1:1,497 (3.17 +/- 0.646), 1:234 (2.37 +/- 0.424) and 1:676 (2.83 +/- 0.404), respectively. The present work indicates that all these wild ruminant species are exposed to granulocytic Ehrlichia in Norway.     

Intolerance amongst deer species at feeding: roe deer are uneasy banqueters

The function of inter-specific interactions in large herbivore assemblies is under debate. We have studied inter-specific interactions between roe and fallow deer on pastures, to assess whether competition between these Cervidae occurs through behavioural interference. Roe were displaced by fallow deer (i.e. the former moved away from the latter at a distance of >50 m) in 83% of cases (N = 127). Ninety-four percentage (N = 83) of displacement events occurred while roe deer were feeding; in 50% of these cases (N = 78), roe stopped grazing and left the feeding ground. Even when fallow deer did not show any sign of direct aggression to roe, these moved away from fallow in 72% of cases (N = 127). Vigilance rate was significantly greater in roe than in fallow deer, irrespectively of the presence of the other species. When roe and fallow deer grazed within 50 m from each other, vigilance rate increased significantly in roe, but not in fallow deer. Roe deer, in a group, were significantly more tolerant of the presence of fallow deer (even in group), than when solitary. Fallow deer seemed to be able to exclude roe deer from feeding sites through behavioural intolerance.     

Fast and efficient DNA-based method for winter diet analysis from stools of three cervids: moose, red deer, and roe deer

Effects of cervid browsing on timber production, especially during winter, lead to economic losses in forest management. The aim of this study was to present an efficient DNA-based method which allows qualitative assessment of the winter diet from stools of moose (Alces alces), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), and red deer (Cervus elaphus). The preliminary results of the diet composition of the three cervids from Poland were also presented with a special emphasis on moose. The electropherograms of the chloroplast intron trnL (UAA) P6 loop amplification products using g (fluorescence-labeled) and h primers revealed differences in the length of PCR products among various plant species eaten by these herbivores. In addition, the usage of species-specific primers allowed unambiguous identification of different gymnosperms and angiosperms. The preliminary moose diet analysis, based on winter fecal samples from the entire range of moose occurrence in Poland, revealed the presence of 15 to 24 tree, shrub, and herbaceous species. This fast, cost-efficient, and simple method proved also to be reliable for the diet analysis of red deer and roe deer. It may be a valuable tool in forest and conservation management, as well as a way of enhancing ecological studies focusing on the impact of herbivores on the ecosystems and their possible food niche overlap.     

Effectiveness of odour repellents on red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus</Emphasis>) and roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>): a field test

Chemical repellents are promoted as a method to reduce ungulate–vehicle collisions and ungulate browsing damages to agricultural and forestry resources. We tested the effectiveness of two odour repellents (Mota FL and Wolf Urine) on the foraging behaviour and area avoidance of free-ranging roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). The effects of the repellents were assessed by comparing deer visitation rates to sand arenas before and after application of repellents and visitation rates to control arenas. Neither of the tested products reduced deer visitation rates. Rapid habituation to olfactory stimuli and lack of sensitivity to predator odours may explain the ineffectiveness of the repellents to alter the behaviour of the deer. The results indicate that the tested products have no effects on roe deer and red deer behaviour and suggest that the effectiveness of the chemical area repellents as a measure to reduce deer–vehicle collision risk and browsing damages is questionable.     

Detection of Bartonella DNA in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and in ticks removed from deer

The potential role of roe deer as a sylvatic reservoir of Bartonella in north-west Poland has been assessed. In addition, ticks infesting roe deer were screened to assess their role as a vector and reservoir of Bartonella. Blood and tissue samples of 72 animals from north-western Poland were PCR-screened. Bartonella DNA was detected by using primers complementary to the intergenic spacer between the 16S and 23S rRNA genes, which is used for identification of over a dozen species of this genus. Products of three different sizes were detected: 230 and 290 bp, representative of two strains of Bartonella capreoli, and 190 bp, identified as Bartonella bovis. All the three amplicons were detected in the blood, spleen and liver from the roe deer. All samples from the heart, lungs and kidneys were PCR negative. In ticks (Ixodes ricinus), only the 290 bp fragment from B. capreoli was present. Generally, Bartonella infection rate in Capreolus capreolus amounted to 27.6% of the roe deer, but it was much higher during winter (62%) than in spring (6.9%). The results show that the roe deer may be a reservoir for B. capreoli and B. bovis. The infection detected in I. ricinus ticks (7.7%) suggests that ticks may act as a Bartonella reservoir and vector.     

Habitat usage by red (Cervus elaphus) and roe (Capreolus capreolus) deer in a Scottish Sitka spruce plantation

Habitat usage in a 1825 ha block of mixed-age forest was assessed by counts of accumulated pellet groups on permanent plots. This monitoring took place from 1978 to 1984 with some 300 plots in 13 types of habitat. Tests on the method are described; losses of pellet groups were insufficient to bias the conclusions.
Usage was least in the forest stages lacking ground vegetation, i.e. thicket, pole and high-canopy forest; stages with ground vegetation had moderately heavy usage. The most preferred habitats were of small extent, treeless, and situated near or within closed forest, i.e. rides, openings and the margin between forest and unplanted hill ground. Red and roe deer showed broadly similar patterns of preference but differed significantly in the use of some habitats. Thickets received more use from red than roe deer, whereas pre-thicket and vegetated high-canopy forest had most use from roe deer, being richer in forbs on which this species feeds heavily.     

Genetic diversity and genetic structure of the Siberian roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus pygargus</Emphasis>) populations from Asia

Background

The roe deer, Capreolus sp., is one of the most widespread meso-mammals of Palearctic distribution, and includes two species, the European roe deer, C. capreolus inhabiting mainly Europe, and the Siberian roe deer, C. pygargus, distributed throughout continental Asia. Although there are a number of genetic studies concerning European roe deer, the Siberian roe deer has been studied less, and none of these studies use microsatellite markers. Natural processes have led to genetic structuring in wild populations. To understand how these factors have affected genetic structure and connectivity of Siberian roe deer, we investigated variability at 12 microsatellite loci for Siberian roe deer from ten localities in Asia.

Results

Moderate levels of genetic diversity (H _E = 0.522 to 0.628) were found in all populations except in Jeju Island, South Korea, where the diversity was lowest?(H _E?= 0.386). Western populations showed relatively low genetic diversity and higher degrees of genetic differentiation compared with eastern populations (mean Ar = 3.54 (east), 2.81 (west), mean F _ST = 0.122). Bayesian-based clustering analysis revealed the existence of three genetically distinct groups (clusters) for Siberian roe deer, which comprise of the Southeastern group (Mainland Korea, Russian Far East, Trans-Baikal region and Northern part of Mongolia), Northwestern group (Western Siberia and Ural in Russia) and Jeju Island population. Genetic analyses including AMOVA (F _RT = 0.200), Barrier and PCA also supported genetic differentiation among regions separated primarily by major mountain ridges, suggesting that mountains played a role in the genetic differentiation of Siberian roe deer. On the other hand, genetic evidence also suggests an ongoing migration that may facilitate genetic admixture at the border areas between two groups.

Conclusions

Our results reveal an apparent pattern of genetic differentiation among populations inhabiting Asia, showing moderate levels of genetic diversity with an east-west gradient. The results suggest at least three distinct management units of roe deer in continental Asia, although genetic admixture is evident in some border areas. The insights obtained from this study shed light on management of Siberian roe deer in Asia and may be applied in conservation of local populations of Siberian roe deer.

     

Cilia-associated respiratory (CAR) bacillus infection in adult red deer, chamois, and roe deer

Cilia-associated respiratory (CAR) bacillus is an unclassified bacterium that colonizes the ciliated epithelium of airways in laboratory rats, laboratory mice, and laboratory and conventionally reared rabbits, cattle, goats, and pigs. Data on the prevalence of CAR bacillus infection in wild animals are lacking. The present study demonstrated the occurrence of the organism in wild red deer (Cervus elaphus hippelaphus), chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) from the Val Fontana in northern Italy. Prevalence ranged from 26% for red deer to 56% for chamois, with a statistically significant negative correlation between CAR bacilli infection and the presence of lymphoid follicles.     

Propagule pressure and land cover changes as main drivers of red and roe deer expansion in mainland Portugal

Aim

The management of the rapid expansion of wild ungulate populations is a challenging task and a societal priority. Using a progressive database of red (Cervus elaphus) and roe (Capreolus capreolus) deer colonization over the last three decades, we estimate the range expansion rates and the underlying mechanisms involved in the expansion patterns of red and roe deer populations at the south‐western edge of its European distribution.

Location

Mainland Portugal.

Methods

We compiled and grouped historical red and roe deer distribution data in three time periods (1981–1990, 1991–2000 and 2001–2010). We used generalized linear mixed models to evaluate how biotic and abiotic drivers determine the expansion patterns of red and roe deer.

Results

We reported a significant expansion of red and roe deer populations during the last three decades. The significant interaction between propagule pressure and land cover suggests that the effects of propagule pressure vary along environmental gradients. We found that the influence of livestock on red and roe deer expansion is idiosyncratic. Contrary to red deer, roe deer expansion was also influenced by climatic conditions. We did not detect any significant effect of human factors on the red and roe deer expansion.

Main conclusions

The synergistic effects between variables should be taken into account when studying the patterns of species expansion. Our study emphasize that policy makers should consider the spatial, temporal, ecological and societal nuances of species expansion in order to prioritize management measures and to allocate management budgets. Although concerted strategies to curtail species spread should mitigate red and roe deer economic and ecological impacts, these effects can be neutralized by a continuous rural exodus and the consequent forest and shrub encroachment.

     

Physical characteristics of rumen contents in two small ruminants of different feeding type,the mouflon (Ovis ammon musimon) and the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)

In domestic ruminants, the stratification of forestomach contents – the results of flotation and sedimentation processes – is an important prerequisite for the selective particle retention in this organ. A series of anatomical and physiological measurements suggests that the degree of this stratification varies between browsing and grazing wild ruminants. We investigated the forestomach contents of free-ranging mouflon and roe deer shot during regular hunting procedures. There was no difference between the species in the degree by which forestomach ingesta separated according to size due to buoyancy characteristics in vitro. However, forestomach fluid of roe deer was more viscous than that of mouflon, and no difference in moisture content was evident between the dorsal and the ventral rumen in roe deer, in contrast to mouflon. Hence, the forestomach milieu in roe deer appears less favourable for gas or particle separation due to buoyancy characteristics. These findings are in accord with notable differences in forestomach papillation between the two species. In roe deer, particle separation is most likely restricted to the reticulum, whereas in mouflon, the whole rumen may pre-sort particles to a higher degree. The results suggest that differences in forestomach physiology may occur across ruminant species.     

Comparing life expectancy of three deer species between captive and wild populations

Life in zoological gardens provides a number of benefits to captive animals, resulting in an artificial reduction of the “struggle for life” compared to their free-ranging counterparts. These advantages should result in a higher chance of surviving from 1 year to the next, and thus in longer average life expectancies for captive animals, given that the biological requirements of the species are adequately met. Here, we compare the life expectancy of captive and free-ranging populations of three deer species (reindeer Rangifer tarandus, red deer Cervus elaphus, and roe deer Capreolus capreolus). Whereas captive reindeer and red deer had life expectancies equal to or longer than free-ranging individuals, the life expectancy of captive roe deer was shorter than that of free-ranging animals. These results support the impression that roe deer are difficult to keep in zoos, whereas reindeer and red deer perform well under human care. We suggest that the mean life expectancy of captive populations relative to that of corresponding free-ranging populations is a reliable indicator to evaluate the husbandry success of a species in captivity.