Design of a specific phenyllactate dehydrogenase by peptide loop exchange on the Bacillus stearothermophilus lactate dehydrogenase framework.

Restriction sites were introduced into the gene for Bacillus stearothermophilus lactate dehydrogenase which enabled a region of the gene to be excised which coded for a mobile surface loop of polypeptide (residues 98-110) which normally seals the active site vacuole from bulk solvent and is a major determinant of substrate specificity. Oligonucleotide-overlap extension (using the polymerase chain reaction) was used to obtain double-stranded DNA regions which coded for different length and sequence loops and which also contained the same restriction sites. The variable length and sequence loops were inserted into the cut gene and used to synthesize hydroxyacid dehydrogenases with altered substrate specificities. Loops which were longer and shorter than the original were made. The substrate specificities of enzymes with these new loops were considerably altered. For many poor enzyme-substrate pairs, the effect of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate on the steady-state kinetic parameters suggested that the substrate was mainly bound in a nonproductive mode. With one longer loop construction (BL1), activity with pyruvate was reduced one-million-fold but activity with phenylpyruvate was largely unaltered. A switch in specificity (kcat/KM) of 390,000-fold was achieved. The 1700:1 selectivity of enzyme BL1 for phenylpyruvate over pyruvate is that required in a phenyllactate dehydrogenase to be used in monitoring phenylpyruvate in the urine of patients with phenylketonuria consuming an apparently phenylalanine-free diet.     

Malate/lactate dehydrogenase in mollicutes: evidence for a multienzyme protein

The malate (MDH) and lactate (LDH) dehydrogenases belong to the homologous class of 2-ketoacid dehydrogenases. The specificity for their respective substrates depends on residues differing at two or three regions within each molecule. Theoretical peptide-mass fingerprinting and PROSITE analysis of nine MDH and six LDH molecules were used to describe conserved sites related to function. A unique LDH is described which probably also confers MDH activity within the 580 kbp genome of Mycoplasma genitalium (class: Mollicutes). A single hydrophilic arginine residue was found in the active site of the M. genitalium LDH enzyme, differing from an hydrophobic residue normally present in these molecules. The effect of this residue may be to alter active site substrate specificity, allowing the enzyme to perform two closely related tasks. Evidence for a single gene affording dual enzymatic function is discussed in terms of genome size reduction in the simplest of free-living organisms. Since Mollicutes are thought to lack enzymes of the tricarboxylic acid cycle that would otherwise bind and interact with MDH in bacterial species possessing this pathway, active site modification of M. genitalium LDH is the sole requirement for MDH activity of this molecule. The closely related helical Mollicute, Spiroplasma melliferum, was shown to possess two distinct gene products for MDH/LDH activity.     

Rhodococcus L-phenylalanine dehydrogenase: kinetics, mechanism, and structural basis for catalytic specificity

Phenylalanine dehydrogenase catalyzes the reversible, pyridine nucleotide-dependent oxidative deamination of L-phenylalanine to form phenylpyruvate and ammonia. We have characterized the steady-state kinetic behavior of the enzyme from Rhodococcus sp. M4 and determined the X-ray crystal structures of the recombinant enzyme in the complexes, E.NADH.L-phenylalanine and E.NAD(+). L-3-phenyllactate, to 1.25 and 1.4 A resolution, respectively. Initial velocity, product inhibition, and dead-end inhibition studies indicate the kinetic mechanism is ordered, with NAD(+) binding prior to phenylalanine and the products' being released in the order of ammonia, phenylpyruvate, and NADH. The enzyme shows no activity with NADPH or other 2'-phosphorylated pyridine nucleotides but has broad activity with NADH analogues. Our initial structural analyses of the E.NAD(+).phenylpyruvate and E.NAD(+). 3-phenylpropionate complexes established that Lys78 and Asp118 function as the catalytic residues in the active site [Vanhooke et al. (1999) Biochemistry 38, 2326-2339]. We have studied the ionization behavior of these residues in steady-state turnover and use these findings in conjunction with the structural data described both here and in our first report to modify our previously proposed mechanism for the enzymatic reaction. The structural characterizations also illuminate the mechanism of the redox specificity that precludes alpha-amino acid dehydrogenases from functioning as alpha-hydroxy acid dehydrogenases.     

The substrate specificity of the protein kinase induced in cells infected with herpesviruses: studies with synthetic substrates [corrected] indicate structural requirements distinct from other protein kinases

Synthetic peptides have been used to investigate the site specificity of highly purified virus induced protein kinase, a recently discovered protein kinase isolated from cells infected with alpha-herpesviruses. The enzyme from cells infected with pseudorabies virus can catalyse the phosphorylation of both seryl and threonyl residues in peptides that contain several arginyl residues on the amino-terminal side of the target residue. At least two arginyl residues are required, and the best substrates examined contain four to six such residues. Virus induced protein kinase differs in site specificity from protein kinase C in being unable to phosphorylate peptides in which multiple arginyl residues are on the carboxyl-terminal side of the target residue, or to phosphorylate peptides in which the arginyl residues are replaced by ornithyl residues. Virus induced protein kinase from cells infected with herpes simplex virus type I had similar substrate preferences to virus induced protein kinase from cells infected with pseudorabies virus. Although virus induced protein kinase and the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase have several peptide substrates in common, their relative preferences for these (as indicated by Km values) were found to be very different.     

Substitution of the amino acid at position 102 with polar and aromatic residues influences substrate specificity of lactate dehydrogenase

The Gin residue at amino acid position 102 ofBacillus stearothermophilus lactate dehydrogenase was replaced with Ser, Thr, Tyr, or Phe to investigate the effect on substrate recognition. The Q102S and Q102T mutant enzymes were found to have a broader range of substrate specificity (measured byk _cat/K _m) than the wild-type enzyme. However, it is evident that either Ser or Thr at position 102 are of a size able to accommodate a wide variety of substrates in the active site and substrate specificity appears to rely largely on size discrimination in these mutants. The Q102F and Q102Y mutant enzymes have low catalytic efficiency and do not show this relaxed substrate specificity. However, their activities are restored by the presence of an aromatic substrate. All of the enzymes have a very low catalytic efficiency with branched chain aliphatic substrates.Abbreviations used BSLDH Bacillus stearothermophilus lactate dehydrogenase - FBP fructose-1,6-bisphosphate - HP hydroxypyruvate - KB ketobutyrate - KC ketocaproate - KV ketovalerate - MDH malate dehydrogenase - PP phenylpyruvate - PYR pyruvate - RBE relative binding energy     

Alteration of the specificity of malate dehydrogenase by chemical modulation of an active site arginine

Malate dehydrogenase from Escherichia coli is highly specific for the oxidation of malate to oxaloacetate. The technique of site-specific modulation has been used to alter the substrate binding site of this enzyme. Introduction of a cysteine in place of the active site binding residue arginine 153 results in a mutant enzyme with diminished catalytic activity, but with K(m) values for malate and oxaloacetate that are surprisingly unaffected. Reaction of this introduced cysteine with a series of amino acid analog reagents leads to the incorporation of a range of functional groups at the active site of malate dehydrogenase. The introduction of a positively charged group such as an amine or an amidine at this position results in improved affinity for several inhibitors over that observed with the native enzyme. However, the recovery of catalytic activity is less dramatic, with less than one third of the native activity achieved with the optimal reagents. These modified enzymes do have altered substrate specificity, with alpha-ketoglutarate and hydroxypyruvate no longer functioning as alternative substrates.     

Purification and characterization of an activator protein for methanol dehydrogenase from thermotolerant Bacillus spp

All thermotolerant methanol-utilizing Bacillus spp. investigated by us possess a NAD-dependent methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) activity which is stimulated by a protein present in the soluble fraction of Bacillus sp. C1 cells. This activator protein was purified to homogeneity from Bacillus sp. C1 cells grown at a low dilution rate in a methanol-limited chemostat culture. The native activator protein (Mr = 50,000) is a dimer of Mr = 27,000 subunits. The N-terminal amino acid sequence revealed no significant similarity with any published sequences. Stimulation of MDH activity by the activator protein required the presence of Mg2+ ions. Plots of specific MDH activity versus activator protein concentration revealed Michaelis-Menten type kinetics. In the presence of activator protein, MDH displayed biphasic kinetics (v versus substrate concentration) toward C1-C4 primary alcohols and NAD. The data suggest that in the presence of activator protein plus Mg2+ ions, MDH possesses a high affinity active site for alcohols and NAD, in addition to an activator- and Mg2(+)-independent low affinity active site. The activation mechanism remains to be elucidated.     

High resolution structures of an oxidized and reduced flavoprotein. The water switch in a soluble form of (S)-mandelate dehydrogenase

The crystal structures of a soluble mutant of the flavoenzyme mandelate dehydrogenase (MDH) from Pseudomonas putida and of the substrate-reduced enzyme have been analyzed at 1.35-A resolution. The mutant (MDH-GOX2) is a fully active chimeric enzyme in which residues 177-215 of the membrane-bound MDH are replaced by residues 176-195 of glycolate oxidase from spinach. Both structures permit full tracing of the polypeptide backbone chain from residues 4-356, including a 4-residue segment that was disordered in an earlier study of the oxidized protein at 2.15 A resolution. The structures of MDH-GOX2 in the oxidized and reduced states are virtually identical with only a slight increase in the bending angle of the flavin ring upon reduction. The only other structural changes within the protein interior are a 10 degrees rotation of an active site tyrosine side chain, the loss of an active site water, and a significant movement of six other water molecules in the active site by 0.45 to 0.78 A. Consistent with solution studies, there is no apparent binding of either the substrate, mandelate, or the oxidation product, benzoylformate, to the reduced enzyme. The observed structural changes upon enzyme reduction have been interpreted as a rearrangement of the hydrogen bonding pattern within the active site that results from binding of a proton to the N-5 position of the anionic hydroquinone form of the reduced flavin prosthetic group. Implications for the low oxidase activity of the reduced enzyme are also discussed.     

AN EXAMINATION OF THE CATALYTIC PROPERTIES OF SEVERAL AMINOTRANSFERASES IN BRAIN AND LIVER BY MEANS OF AN IMPROVED RADIOMETRIC ASSAY WITH DINITROPHENYLHYDRAZINE

Abstract— The assay of aminotransferases, performed by solvent extraction of keto acids formed from labelled amino acids, has been modified to enhance the recovery of both aliphatic and aromatic keto acid products. The keto acids are first converted to their respective dinitrophenylhydrazones which are more completely extracted into less polar organic solvents. By this manoeuvre, both keto acid extraction is increased and the extraction of the precursor amino acid is reduced. Employing this technique, the kinetics of brain-stem γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), tryptophan, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) aminotransferases and brain-stem and liver tyrosine aminotransferases were examined. Brain-stem aminotransferases, particularly the aromatic amino acid transferases, have a higher affinity for both the amino acid and the keto acid when the aromatic keto acid, phenylpyruvate (0·8 mM), is employed as amino group acceptor, whereas maximal velocities for aminotransferase reactions are much greater when α-ketoglutarate (0·8 m m ) is the amino group acceptor. Brain-stem tyrosine aminotransferase exhibits a much lower affinity for tyrosine in the presence of either 0·8m m -α-ketoglutarate or 0·8 m m -phenylpyruvate than does liver tyrosine aminotransferase. p -Chlorophenylpyruvate and phenylpyruvate exhibit similar properties as amino group acceptors for brain-stem tryptophan aminotransferase. Cysteine inhibits tryptophan aminotransferase when phenylpyruvate is the amino group acceptor, in a manner which is competitive with the amino acid. Benzoylformate inhibits both tryptophan and DOPA aminotransferases when phenylpyruvate is the amino group acceptor, but this inhibition does not appear to be competitive with phenylpyruvate.     

The substrate specificity of the protein kinase induced in cells infected with herpesviruses: Studies with synthetic substatres indicate structural requirements distinct from other protein kinases

Synthetic peptides have been used to investigate the site specificity of highly purified virus induced protein kinase, a recently discovered protein kinase isolated from cells infected with α-herpesviruses. The enzyme from cells infected with pseudorabies virus can catalyse the phosphorylation of both seryl and threonyl residues in peptides that contain several arginyl residues on the amino-terminal side of the target residue. At least two arginyl residues are required, and the best substrates examined contain four to six such residues. Virus induced protein kinase differs in site specificity from protein kinase C in being unable to phosphorylate peptides in which multiple arginyl residues are on the carboxyl-terminal side of the target residue, or to phosphorylate peptides in which the arginyl residues are replaced by ornithyl residues. Virus induced protein kinase from cells infected with herpes simples virus type I had similar substrate preferences to virus induced protein kinase from cells infected with pseudorabies virus. Although virus induced protein kinase and the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase have several peptide substrates in common, their relative preferences for these (as indicated by K_m values) were found to be very different.     

Rat mast cell carboxypeptidase: amino acid sequence and evidence of enzyme activity within mast cell granules

The amino acid sequence of rat mast cell carboxypeptidase has been determined. The major form has 308 residues; a minor form has an additional (glutamyl) residue at the amino terminus that may indicate an alternate cleavage site during zymogen activation. The enzyme is homologous to pancreatic carboxypeptidases A and B, with conservation of the functional amino acid residues of the active site. The putative substrate binding site resembles that of carboxypeptidase A, although other structural features bear more similarity to carboxypeptidase B. Mast cell carboxypeptidase retains enzymatic activity toward a peptide substrate (angiotensin I) while bound within the granular matrix of the rat connective tissue mast cells. Evidence is presented to suggest that a cluster of positively charged lysyl and arginyl residues binds the enzyme to the negatively charged heparin of the granular matrix but leaves the active site exposed to bind and cleave peptide substrates.     

Structural analyses of a malate dehydrogenase with a variable active site

Malate dehydrogenase specifically oxidizes malate to oxaloacetate. The specificity arises from three arginines in the active site pocket that coordinate the carboxyl groups of the substrate and stabilize the newly forming hydroxyl/keto group during catalysis. Here, the role of Arg-153 in distinguishing substrate specificity is examined by the mutant R153C. The x-ray structure of the NAD binary complex at 2.1 A reveals two sulfate ions bound in the closed form of the active site. The sulfate that occupies the substrate binding site has been translated approximately 2 A toward the opening of the active site cavity. Its new location suggests that the low catalytic turnover observed in the R153C mutant may be due to misalignment of the hydroxyl or ketone group of the substrate with the appropriate catalytic residues. In the NAD.pyruvate ternary complex, the monocarboxylic inhibitor is bound in the open conformation of the active site. The pyruvate is coordinated not by the active site arginines, but through weak hydrogen bonds to the amide backbone. Energy minimized molecular models of unnatural analogues of R153C (Wright, S. K., and Viola, R. E. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 31151-31155) reveal that the regenerated amino and amido side chains can form favorable hydrogen-bonding interactions with the substrate, although a return to native enzymatic activity is not observed. The low activity of the modified R153C enzymes suggests that precise positioning of the guanidino side chain is essential for optimal orientation of the substrate.     

Essential arginyl residues in yeast phosphoglyceromutase.

Inactivation of yeast phosphoglyceromutase (tetramer) with 1,2-cyclohexanedione correlates with the modification of six arginyl residues per mole of the enzyme. Protection experiments using 3-phosphoglycerate suggest that four arginyl residues (one residue per subunit) are involved in the binding of the substrate to the enzyme. The modified enzyme reversibly regained its activity upon incubation with hydroxylamine. The reactivity of lysyl residues which have been shown to be involved in the active site is markedly reduced in the enzyme inactivated with 1,2-cyclohexanedione, indicating that the lysyl and arginyl residues are in close proximity in the active site.     

Determinants of substrate specificity for saccharopine dehydrogenase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae

A survey of NADH, alpha-Kg, and lysine analogues has been undertaken in an attempt to define the substrate specificity of saccharopine dehydrogenase and to identify functional groups on all substrates and dinucleotides important for substrate binding. A number of NAD analogues, including NADP, 3-acetylpyridine adenine dinucleotide (3-APAD), 3-pyridinealdehyde adenine dinucleotide (3-PAAD), and thionicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (thio-NAD), can serve as a substrate in the oxidative deamination reaction, as can a number of alpha-keto analogues, including glyoxylate, pyruvate, alpha-ketobutyrate, alpha-ketovalerate, alpha-ketomalonate, and alpha-ketoadipate. Inhibition studies using nucleotide analogues suggest that the majority of the binding energy of the dinucleotides comes from the AMP portion and that distinctly different conformations are generated upon binding of the oxidized and reduced dinucleotides. Addition of the 2'-phosphate as in NADPH causes poor binding of subsequent substrates but has little effect on coenzyme binding and catalysis. In addition, the 10-fold decrease in affinity of 3-APAD in comparison to NAD suggests that the nicotinamide ring binding pocket is hydrophilic. Extensive inhibition studies using aliphatic and aromatic keto acid analogues have been carried out to gain insight into the keto acid binding pocket. Data suggest that a side chain with three carbons (from the alpha-keto group up to and including the side chain carboxylate) is optimal. In addition, the distance between the C1-C2 unit and the C5 carboxylate of the alpha-keto acid is also important for binding; the alpha-oxo group contributes a factor of 10 to affinity. The keto acid binding pocket is relatively large and flexible and can accommodate the bulky aromatic ring of a pyridine dicarboxylic acid and a negative charge at the C3 but not the C4 position. However, the amino acid binding site is hydrophobic, and the optimal length of the hydrophobic portion of the amino acid carbon side chain is three or four carbons. In addition, the amino acid binding pocket can accommodate a branch at the gamma-carbon, but not at the beta-carbon.     

Site-directed mutagenesis and X-ray crystallography of the PQQ-containing quinoprotein methanol dehydrogenase and its electron acceptor, cytochrome c(L)

Two proteins specifically involved in methanol oxidation in the methylotrophic bacterium Methylobacterium extorquens have been modified by site-directed mutagenesis. Mutation of the proposed active site base (Asp303) to glutamate in methanol dehydrogenase (MDH) gave an active enzyme (D303E-MDH) with a greatly reduced affinity for substrate and with a lower activation energy. Results of kinetic and deuterium isotope studies showed that the essential mechanism in the mutant protein was unchanged, and that the step requiring activation by ammonia remained rate limiting. No spectrally detectable intermediates could be observed during the reaction. The X-ray structure, determined to 3 A resolution, of D303E-MDH showed that the position and coordination geometry of the Ca2+ ion in the active site was altered; the larger Glu303 side chain was coordinated to the Ca2+ ion and also hydrogen bonded to the O5 atom of pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ). The properties and structure of the D303E-MDH are consistent with the previous proposal that the reaction in MDH is initiated by proton abstraction involving Asp303, and that the mechanism involves a direct hydride transfer reaction. Mutation of the two adjacent cysteine residues that make up the novel disulfide ring in the active site of MDH led to an inactive enzyme, confirming the essential role of this remarkable ring structure. Mutations of cytochrome c(L), which is the electron acceptor from MDH was used to identify Met109 as the sixth ligand to the heme.     

Conversion of methylamine dehydrogenase to a long-chain amine dehydrogenase by mutagenesis of a single residue

Methylamine dehydrogenase (MADH) is a tryptophan tryptophylquinone (TTQ) dependent enzyme that catalyzes the oxidative deamination of primary amines. Amino acid residues of both the TTQ-bearing beta subunit and the noncatalytic alpha subunit line a substrate channel that leads from the protein surface to the enzyme active site. Phe55 of the alpha subunit is located at the opening of the active site. Conversion of alphaPhe55 to alanine dramatically alters the substrate preference of MADH. The K(m) for methylamine increases from 9 microM to 15 mM. The preferred substrates are now primary amines with chain lengths of at least seven carbons. The K(m) for 1, 10-diaminodecane is 11 microM, compared to 1.2 mM for wild-type MADH. Despite the large variation in K(m) values, k(cat) values are relatively unaffected by the mutation. Molecular modeling of substrates into the crystal structure of the enzyme active site and substrate channel provides an explanation for the dramatic changes in substrate specificity caused by this mutation of a single amino acid residue.     

Alteration of substrate specificity of leucine dehydrogenase by site-directed mutagenesis

The residues L40, A113, V291, and V294, in leucine dehydrogenase (LeuDH), predicted to be involved in recognition of the substrate side chain, have been mutated on the basis of the molecular modeling to mimic the substrate specificities of phenylalanine (PheDH), glutamate (GluDH), and lysine dehydrogenases (LysDH). The A113G and A113G/V291L mutants, imitating the PheDH active site, displayed activities toward -phenylalanine and phenylpyruvate with 1.6 and 7.8% of k_cat values of the wild-type enzyme for the preferred substrates, -leucine and its keto-analog, respectively. Indeed, the residue A113, corresponding to G114 in PheDH, affects the volume of the side-chain binding pocket and has a critical role in discrimination of the bulkiness of the side chain. Another two sets of mutants, substituting L40 and V294 of LeuDH with the corresponding residues predicted in GluDH and LysDH, were also constructed and characterized. Emergence of GluDH and LysDH activities in L40K/V294S and L40D/V294S mutants, respectively, indicates that the two corresponding residues in the active site of amino acid dehydrogenases are important for discrimination of the hydrophobicity/polarity of the aliphatic substrate side chain. All these results demonstrate that the substrate specificities of the amino acid dehydrogenases can be altered by protein engineering. The engineered dehydrogenases are expected to be used for production and detection of natural and non-natural amino acids.     

A highly active, soluble mutant of the membrane-associated (S)-mandelate dehydrogenase from Pseudomonas putida.

(S)-Mandelate dehydrogenase (MDH) from Pseudomonas putida, a member of the flavin mononucleotide-dependent alpha-hydroxy acid oxidase/dehydrogenase family, is a membrane-associated protein, in contrast to the more well-characterized members of this protein family including glycolate oxidase (GOX) from spinach. In a previous study [Mitra, B., et al. (1993) Biochemistry 32, 12959-12967], the membrane association of MDH was correlated to a 53 amino acid segment in the interior of the primary sequence by construction of a chimeric enzyme, MDH-GOX1, in which the membrane-binding segment in MDH was deleted and replaced with the corresponding 34 amino acid segment from the soluble GOX. Though MDH-GOX1 was soluble, it was an inefficient, nonspecific enzyme that involved a different transition state for the catalyzed reaction from that of the wild-type MDH. In the present study, it is shown that the membrane-binding segment in MDH is somewhat shorter, approximately 39 residues long. Partial or total deletion of this segment disrupts membrane localization of MDH. This segment is not important for substrate oxidation activity. A new chimera, MDH-GOX2, was created by replacing this shorter membrane-binding segment from MDH with the corresponding 20 amino acid segment from GOX. The soluble MDH-GOX2 is very similar to the wild-type membrane-bound enzyme in its spectroscopic properties, substrate specificity, catalytic activity, kinetic mechanism, and lack of reactivity toward oxygen. Therefore, it should prove to be a highly useful model for structural studies of MDH.     

Functional residues at the active site of angiotensin converting enzyme.

A series of chemical modification reactions have been carried out with rabbit pulmonary angiotensin converting enzyme (dipeptidyl carboxypeptidase, EC 3.4.15.1) in order to identify amino acid residues essential for its catalytic activity. The enzyme is rapidly inactivated by nitration with tetranitromethane and by O-acetylation with N-acetylimidazole. Deacylation with hydroxylamine restores activity to the acetylated enzyme, while the inhibitor, β-phenylpropionyl-L-phenylalanine, protects against acetylimidazole inactivation. These results indicate the presence of functional tyrosyl residues at the active site of the enzyme. Reaction with butanedione decreases activity, an effect that is markedly enhanced by the presence of borate, indicating essential arginyl residues. In addition, activity is diminished by the carboxyl reagent, cyclohexylmorpholinoethyl carbodiimide. Thus, the three functional residues long known to be components of the active site of bovine carboxypeptidase A, tyrosyl, arginyl, and glutamyl, have counterparts in the angiotensin converting enzyme. The effects of pyridoxal phosphate and a number of other reagents demonstrate that the converting enzyme also contains an important lysyl residue.