Characterization of Pneumocystis Major Surface Glycoprotein Gene (msg) Promoter Activity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Major surface glycoprotein (Msg), the most abundant cell surface protein of Pneumocystis, plays an important role in the interaction of this opportunistic pathogen with host cells, and its potential for antigenic variation may facilitate evasion of host immune responses. In the present study, we have identified and characterized the promoter region of msg in 3 species of Pneumocystis: P. carinii, P. jirovecii, and P. murina. Because Pneumocystis cannot be cultured, promoter activity was measured in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a related fungus, using a yeast vector modified to utilize the gene coding for Renilla luciferase as a reporter gene. The 5′-flanking sequences of msg from all three Pneumocystis species showed considerable promoter activity, with increases in luciferase activity up to 15- to 44-fold above baseline. Progressive deletions helped define an ∼13-bp sequence in each Pneumocystis species that appears to be critical for promoter activity. Electrophoretic mobility shift analysis using P. carinii-specific msg promoter sequences demonstrated binding of nuclear proteins of S. cerevisiae. The 144-bp 5′-flanking region of P. murinamsg showed 72% identity to that of P. carinii. The 5′-flanking region of P. jiroveciimsg showed 58 and 61% identity to those of P. murina and P. carinii, respectively. The msg promoter is a good candidate for inclusion in a construct designed for genetic manipulation of Pneumocystis species.     

Mammalian Glucose Transporter Activity Is Dependent upon Anionic and Conical Phospholipids

The regulated movement of glucose across mammalian cell membranes is mediated by facilitative glucose transporters (GLUTs) embedded in lipid bilayers. Despite the known importance of phospholipids in regulating protein structure and activity, the lipid-induced effects on the GLUTs remain poorly understood. We systematically examined the effects of physiologically relevant phospholipids on glucose transport in liposomes containing purified GLUT4 and GLUT3. The anionic phospholipids, phosphatidic acid, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylglycerol, and phosphatidylinositol, were found to be essential for transporter function by activating it and stabilizing its structure. Conical lipids, phosphatidylethanolamine and diacylglycerol, enhanced transporter activity up to 3-fold in the presence of anionic phospholipids but did not stabilize protein structure. Kinetic analyses revealed that both lipids increase the k_cat of transport without changing the K_m values. These results allowed us to elucidate the activation of GLUT by plasma membrane phospholipids and to extend the field of membrane protein-lipid interactions to the family of structurally and functionally related human solute carriers.     

The Expression of GHS-R in Primary Neurons Is Dependent upon Maturation Stage and Regional Localization

Ghrelin is a hormone with a crucial role in the regulation of appetite, regulation of inflammation, glucose metabolism and cell proliferation. In the brain ghrelin neurons are located in the cortex (sensorimotor area, cingular gyrus), and the fibres of ghrelin neurons in hypothalamus project directly to the dorsal vagal complex (DVC). Ghrelin binds the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R) a G-protein-coupled receptor with a widespread tissue distribution, indeed these receptors are localized both in nonnervous, organs/tissues (i.e. adipose tissue, myocardium, adrenals, gonads, lung, liver, arteries, stomach, pancreas, thyroid, and kidney) as well as in central nervous system (CNS) and higher levels of expression in the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus and lower levels of expression in other organs, including brain. A GHS-R specific monoclonal antibody has been developed and characterized and through it we demonstrate that GHS-R is expressed in primary neurons and that its expression is dependent upon their developmental stage and shows differences according to the brain region involved, with a more pronounced expression in hippocampal rather than cortical neurons. A characterization of GHS-R within the central nervous system is of extreme importance in order to gain insights on its role in the modulation of neurodegenerative events such as Alzheimer’s disease.     

MicroRNA 155 Control of p53 Activity Is Context Dependent and Mediated by Aicda and Socs1

In biological processes, the balance between positive and negative inputs is critical for an effective physiological response and to prevent disease. A case in point is the germinal center (GC) reaction, wherein high mutational and proliferation rates are accompanied by an obligatory suppression of the DNA repair machinery. Understandably, when the GC reaction goes awry, loss of immune cells or lymphoid cancer ensues. Here, we detail the functional interactions that make microRNA 155 (miR-155) a key part of this process. Upon antigen exposure, miR-155^−/− mature B cells displayed significantly higher double-strand DNA break (DSB) accumulation and p53 activation than their miR-155^+/+ counterparts. Using B cell-specific knockdown strategies, we confirmed the role of the miR-155 target Aicda (activation-induced cytidine deaminase) in this process and, in combination with a gain-of-function model, unveiled a previously unappreciated role for Socs1 in directly modulating p53 activity and the DNA damage response in B lymphocytes. Thus, miR-155 controls the outcome of the GC reaction by modulating its initiation (Aicda) and termination (Socs1/p53 response), suggesting a mechanism to explain the quantitative defect in germinal center B cells found in mice lacking or overexpressing this miRNA.     

Biological Activity of Nerve Growth Factor Precursor Is Dependent upon Relative Levels of Its Receptors

Nerve growth factor (NGF) is produced as a precursor called pro-nerve growth factor (proNGF), which is secreted by many tissues and is the predominant form of NGF in the central nervous system. In Alzheimer disease brain, cholinergic neurons degenerate and can no longer transport NGF as efficiently, leading to an increase in untransported NGF in the target tissue. The protein that accumulates in the target tissue is proNGF, not the mature form. The role of this precursor is controversial, and both neurotrophic and apoptotic activities have been reported for recombinant proNGFs. Differences in the protein structures, protein expression systems, methods used for protein purification, and methods used for bioassay may affect the activity of these proteins. Here, we show that proNGF is neurotrophic regardless of mutations or tags, and no matter how it is purified or in which system it is expressed. However, although proNGF is neurotrophic under our assay conditions for primary sympathetic neurons and for pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells, it is apoptotic for unprimed PC12 cells when they are deprived of serum. The ratio of tropomyosin-related kinase A to p75 neurotrophin receptor is low in unprimed PC12 cells compared with primed PC12 cells and sympathetic neurons, altering the balance of proNGF-induced signaling to favor apoptosis. We conclude that the relative level of proNGF receptors determines whether this precursor exhibits neurotrophic or apoptotic activity.Nerve growth factor (NGF)³ regulates neuronal survival, neurite outgrowth, and differentiation in the peripheral and central nervous systems (1). The mature form of NGF forms a non-covalent homodimer and binds with high affinity (k_d ≈ 10⁻¹¹ m) to tropomyosin-related kinase A (TrkA) and with low affinity (k_d ≈ 10⁻⁹ m) to the common neurotrophin receptor p75^NTR (p75 neurotrophin receptor) (2). NGF promotes cell survival and growth in cells expressing TrkA through activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT pathway and the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway (3, 4). p75^NTR plays diverse roles, ranging from cell survival to cell death depending on the cellular context in which it is expressed. Through activation of the NF-κB pathway, p75^NTR can contribute to cell survival in sensory neurons (5), it is involved in axonal growth via regulation of Rho activity (6), and it can interact with Trks to enhance neurotrophin affinity (at low concentration of ligand) and specificity of binding to Trks (7–9). High levels of p75^NTR expression can induce apoptosis when there are low levels of Trk or when Trk is absent (10, 11). Apoptosis occurs through increased ceramide production (12), activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK1), and p53 (10, 13). p75^NTR requires a co-receptor called sortilin to induce cell death (14).NGF is produced as a precursor called pro-nerve growth factor (proNGF) (15). ProNGF is secreted by many tissues such as prostate cells, spermatids, hair follicles, oral mucosal keratinocytes, sympathetic neurons, cortical astrocytes, heart, and spleen (16–20). ProNGF is the predominant form of NGF in the central and peripheral nervous systems, whereas little or no mature NGF can be detected (21–24). In Alzheimer disease brain, retrograde transport from the cortex and hippocampus to basal forebrain cholinergic neurons is reduced as these neurons degenerate, with concomitant proNGF accumulation in the cortex and hippocampus (21, 23). This suggested that proNGF mediates biological activity besides its prodomain function of promoting protein folding and regulation of neurotrophin secretion (25–28). To study the role of proNGF protein in vitro, point mutations were inserted at the cleavage site used by furin, a proprotein convertase known to cleave proNGF (29), to minimize the conversion of proNGF to mature NGF. The resulting recombinant, cleavage-resistant proNGFs reportedly exhibit either apoptotic activity (30, 31) or neurotrophic activity (32, 33). These recombinant proteins differ in several ways (

Degradation, Recycling, and Shedding of Trypanosoma brucei Variant Surface Glycoprotein

ABSTRACT. Trypanosoma brucei bloodstream forms express a densely packed surface coat consisting of identical variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) molecules. This surface coat is subject to antigenic variation by sequential expression of different VSG genes and thus enables the cells to escape the mammalian host's specific immune response. VSG turnover was investigated and compared with the antigen switching rate. Living cells were radiochemically labeled with either ¹²⁵I-Bolton-Hunter reagent or ³⁵S-methionine, and immunogold-surface labeled for electron microscopy studies. The fate of labeled VSG was studied during subsequent incubation or cultivation of labeled trypanosomes. Our data show that living cells slowly released VSG into the medium with a shedding rate of 2.2 ± 0.6% h⁻¹ (t_1/2= 33 ± 9 h). In contrast, VSG degradation accounted for only 0.3 ± 0.06% h⁻¹ (t_1/2= 237 ± 45 h) and followed the classical lysosomal pathway as judged by electron microscopy. Since VSG uptake by endocytosis was rather high, our data suggest that most of the endocytosed VSG was recycled to the surface membrane. These results indicate that shedding of VSG at a regular turnover rate is sufficient to remove the old VSG coat within one week, and no increase of the VSG turnover rate seems to be necessary during antigenic variation.     

Surface Translocation by Legionella pneumophila: a Form of Sliding Motility That Is Dependent upon Type II Protein Secretion

Legionella pneumophila exhibits surface translocation when it is grown on a buffered charcoal yeast extract (BCYE) containing 0.5 to 1.0% agar. After 7 to 22 days of incubation, spreading legionellae appear in an amorphous, lobed pattern that is most manifest at 25 to 30°C. All nine L. pneumophila strains examined displayed the phenotype. Surface translocation was also exhibited by some, but not all, other Legionella species examined. L. pneumophila mutants that were lacking flagella and/or type IV pili behaved as the wild type did when plated on low-percentage agar, indicating that the surface translocation is not swarming or twitching motility. A translucent film was visible atop the BCYE agar, advancing ahead of the spreading legionellae. Based on its abilities to disperse water droplets and to promote the spreading of heterologous bacteria, the film appeared to manipulate surface tension and, as such, acted like a surfactant. Indeed, a sample obtained from the film rapidly dispersed when it was spotted onto a plastic surface. L. pneumophila type II secretion (Lsp) mutants, but not their complemented derivatives, were defective for both surface translocation and film production. In contrast, mutants defective for type IV secretion exhibited normal surface translocation. When lsp mutants were spotted onto film produced by the wild type, they were able to spread, suggesting that type II secretion promotes the elaboration of the Legionella surfactant. Together, these data indicate that L. pneumophila exhibits a form of surface translocation that is most akin to “sliding motility” and uniquely dependent upon type II secretion.The genus Legionella was established in 1977, following the isolation of Legionella pneumophila from patients with a form of pneumonia now known as Legionnaires'' disease (33). Today, L. pneumophila is recognized as a common cause of both community-acquired and nosocomial pneumonia (84). Legionellosis occurs sporadically and in large outbreaks, with the largest outbreak occurring as recently as 2003 and encompassing 800 suspected and 449 confirmed cases (43). L. pneumophila is especially pathogenic for the elderly and the immunocompromised, large and growing segments of the population (39, 84), and recent studies have been highlighting the growing significance of travel-associated Legionnaires'' disease (107). L. pneumophila is a gram-negative, gammaproteobacterium that is widespread in natural and manufactured water systems (22, 39, 93). Infection occurs after the inhalation of Legionella-contaminated water droplets originating from a wide variety of aerosol-generating devices (39). Alarmingly, outbreaks can occur following the airborne spread of L. pneumophila over distances of >10 km from cooling towers or scrubbers (86). Within its aquatic habitats, L. pneumophila survives over a wide temperature range and grows on surfaces, in biofilms, and as an intracellular parasite of protozoa (9, 39, 110). Within the mammalian lung, the organism has the ability to attach to and invade macrophages and epithelia (27, 106, 113). Among the processes that promote L. pneumophila growth in both the environment and the mammalian lung are Lsp type II protein secretion, Dot/Icm type IVB protein secretion, and Lvh type IVA protein secretion (5, 25, 31, 106). Other key surface features of L. pneumophila are polar flagella that promote swimming motility and type IV pili that help mediate adherence (53, 103, 113). In addition to exporting proteins onto its surface into the extracellular milieu, and/or into host cells, L. pneumophila also secretes a siderophore and pyomelanin pigment that help mediate iron assimilation (23). We now report that L. pneumophila has the ability to translocate or spread across an agar surface. This new form of Legionella “motility” did not require the action of flagella, pili, or type IV secretion but was associated with the export of a surfactantlike material and an intact type II secretion system.     

含p21启动子的荧光素酶报告基因的构建和活性测定

目的:克隆p21基因的启动子,插入荧光素酶报告基因载体中,并检测其活性。方法:采用PCR技术从人乳腺癌细胞系MCF-7基因组中扩增出p21启动子,插入荧光素酶报告基因载体pGL3-basic中,确定所扩增的DNA序列,在293T细胞中检测其活性。结果:测序结果表明扩增的p21启动子序列正确,活性实验表明构建的报告基因具有启动子活性,雌激素受体(ER)α能以剂量依赖的方式升高p21报告基因的转录。结论:克隆了p21启动子,为ERα共调节子的功能研究提供了重要基础。     

含p27启动子的荧光素酶报告基因的构建和活性测定

目的:克隆p27基因的启动子,插入荧光素酶报告基因载体中,并检测其活性。方法:采用PCR技术从人乳腺癌细胞系MCF-7基因组中扩增出p27启动子,插入荧光素酶报告基因载体pGL3-basic中,确定所扩增的DNA序列,在293T细胞中检测其活性。结果:测序结果显示扩增的p27启动子序列正确,活性实验表明构建的报告基因具有启动子活性,雌激素受体(ER)α能以剂量依赖的方式升高p27报告基因的转录。结论:克隆了p27启动子,为ERα共调节子的功能研究提供了重要基础。     

人p53启动子萤光素酶报告基因的构建及其活性测定

目的：克隆p53基因的启动子,插入萤光素酶报告基因载体,并检测启动子活性。方法：采用PCR技术从人肝癌细胞系HepG2基因组中扩增人p53启动子,插入萤光素酶报告基因载体pGL4．0-empty,将重组质粒转染293T、ZR75-1、HepG2、A549细胞,测定p53启动子的转录活性。结果：构建了p53启动子的萤光素酶报告基因;通过测序及质粒酶切鉴定,所构建的p53启动子正确;活性实验表明,报告基因在多种细胞中显示构建的p53启动子活性,并呈现一定的剂量效应;转录因子USF能以剂量效应方式提高p53报告基因的转录活性。结论：克隆了人p53启动子,为进一步研究调控p53的转录因子奠定了基础。     

Isolation and Activity Analysis of a Seed-Abundant soyAP1 Gene Promoter from Soybean

The soybean aspartic proteinase gene soyAP1 has previously been shown to be expressed specifically in soybean seeds. To investigate the expression pattern and active cis-elements of the soyAP1 promoter, the 1,650-bp 5??-upstream genomic DNA fragment named PS-552 was isolated by PCR walking. Sequence analysis revealed that this fragment contains a series of motifs related to seed-specific promoters and some pollen-expressed elements. Stable expression in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana showed that the PS-552 promoter can regulate beta-glucuronidase gene accumulation in mature seeds at much higher levels than other tissues, especially vegetative tissues, and exhibits similar activity to the 35S promoter in mature seeds. These results show that the PS-552 promoter is a highly active promoter controlling downstream gene expression, mainly in mature seeds. The 5??-end deletion studies of PS-552 showed that the cis-elements of CAAACAC, AACA, E-box, and CCAA play a role in increasing the seed-specific activity. The proportion of mature seed activity and flower activity was increased as the deletion fragment lengthened, indicating that seed cis-elements possibly lessen or suppress the effect of pollen-expressed elements, increasing the activity of PS-552 in mature seeds.     

小鼠超高硫角蛋白基因启动子的克隆及其表达活性分析

目的筛选在小鼠毛囊中具有高表达活性的内源启动子,为建立小鼠被毛特异表达外源蛋白的转基因技术奠定基础。方法以小鼠基因组为模板,克隆得到超高硫角蛋白基因启动子超高硫角蛋白(UHS),将其分别与pβgal-Basic和pAcGFP1-N1载体连接,构建了重组真核表达载体。采用阳离子脂质体法转染胎鼠组织块,分析其表达活性。结果转染后48 h,在蓝光激发条件下可以检测到绿色荧光蛋白(GFP)在小鼠毛囊区高表达,转染96 h后,表达减弱;此外,转染后48 h,βgal染色结果显示在皮肤块的毛囊区存在蓝色点状区域。结论 UHS启动子在小鼠毛囊中具有表达特异性。     

Epigenetic Control of a Transposon-Inactivated Gene in Neurospora Is Dependent on DNA Methylation

An unstable allele of the Neurospora am (GDH) gene resulting from integration of the retrotransposon Tad3-2 into 5'' noncoding sequences was found in previous work. We report that reversion to Am(+) depends on DNA methylation within and upstream of Tad. Levels of methylation were correlated with the proportion of Am(+) conidia, whether the cultures were derived from Am(-) or Am(+) isolates. Reversion to Am(+) did not occur when conidia were plated on 5-azacytidine, which reduces DNA methylation. The mutation dim-2, which appears to abolish DNA methylation, also prevented reversion to Am(+). The native am allele, in a strain that lacked Tad elements, was replaced with am::Tad3-2 or with a deletion derivative that prevents transposition of Tad. Transformants of both classes showed instability comparable with that of the original isolates, which contain multiple Tad elements. Deletion of the upstream enhancer-like sequences, URSamα and β, did not prevent the instability of am::Tad3-2. The results suggest that am expression is dependent on DNA methylation but not on proliferation or transposition of the Tad element and that the instability does not require the upstream sequences of am.     

Oligomerization of Clostridium perfringens Epsilon Toxin Is Dependent upon Caveolins 1 and 2

Evidence from multiple studies suggests that Clostridium perfringens ε-toxin is a pore-forming toxin, assembling into oligomeric complexes in the plasma membrane of sensitive cells. In a previous study, we used gene-trap mutagenesis to identify mammalian factors contributing to toxin activity, including caveolin-2 (CAV2). In this study, we demonstrate the importance of caveolin-2 and its interaction partner, caveolin-1 (CAV1), in ε-toxin-induced cytotoxicity. Using CAV2-specific shRNA in a toxin-sensitive human kidney cell line, ACHN, we confirmed that cells deficient in CAV2 exhibit increased resistance to ε-toxin. Similarly, using CAV1-specific shRNA, we demonstrate that cells deficient in CAV1 also exhibit increased resistance to the toxin. Immunoprecipitation of CAV1 and CAV2 from ε-toxin-treated ACHN cells demonstrated interaction of both CAV1 and -2 with the toxin. Furthermore, blue-native PAGE indicated that the toxin and caveolins were components of a 670 kDa protein complex. Although ε-toxin binding was only slightly perturbed in caveolin-deficient cells, oligomerization of the toxin was dramatically reduced in both CAV1- and CAV2-deficient cells. These results indicate that CAV1 and -2 potentiate ε-toxin induced cytotoxicity by promoting toxin oligomerization – an event which is requisite for pore formation and, by extension, cell death.