Behavioural biology: an effective and relevant conservation tool

'Conservation behaviour' is a young discipline that investigates how proximate and ultimate aspects of the behaviour of an animal can be of value in preventing the loss of biodiversity. Rumours of its demise are unfounded. Conservation behaviour is quickly building a capacity to positively influence environmental decision making. The theoretical framework used by animal behaviourists is uniquely valuable to elucidating integrative solutions to human-wildlife conflicts, efforts to reintroduce endangered species and reducing the deleterious effects of ecotourism. Conservation behaviourists must join with other scientists under the multidisciplinary umbrella of conservation biology without giving up on their focus: the mechanisms, development, function and evolutionary history of individual differences in behaviour. Conservation behaviour is an increasingly relevant tool in the preservation of nature.     

Firefly luciferase as a tool in molecular and cell biology

The unique properties of firefly luciferase and the cloning of the gene for this enzyme have spawned a number of novel applications of this protein. We summarize a few of these applications including its use as a reporter gene, as a model for the study of protein import into peroxisomes, and as a component of a heterologous gene expression system.     

Lichen translocation with reference to species conservation and habitat restoration

Lichen translocation techniques that may be of value in the salvage of endangered lichen species, or in the latter stages of habitat restoration, are reviewed. Successful translocation is defined here as the transfer of a target organism from a donor site to a receptor site to establish a new self-maintaining colony; for lichens, this may or may not include co-transfer of the thallus-supporting substrate. In a time of global environmental change many species are under threat and the need for effective translocation methods is clear. Indeed, some lichens are already amenable to translocation from one substrate to another. Global conservation requires the restoration of degraded ecosystems and translocation technology offers a tool for habitat replenishment. The re-introduction of lichenised fungi into sites from which they have been lost is an integral part of the restoration of complex habitats. Successful translocation creates in turn niches for other organisms which inhabit, or feed upon, them.     

Life as physics and chemistry: A system view of biology

Cellular life can be viewed as one of many physical natural systems that extract free energy from their environments in the most efficient way, according to fundamental physical laws, and grow until limited by inherent physical constraints. Thus, it can be inferred that it is the efficiency of this process that natural selection acts upon. The consequent emphasis on metabolism, rather than replication, points to a metabolism-first origin of life with the adoption of DNA template replication as a second stage development. This order of events implies a cellular regulatory system that pre-dates the involvement of DNA and might, therefore, be based on the information acquired as peptides fold into proteins, rather than on genetic regulatory networks. Such an epigenetic cell regulatory model, the independent attractor model, has already been proposed to explain the phenomenon of radiation induced genomic instability. Here it is extended to provide an epigenetic basis for the morphological and functional diversity that evolution has yielded, based on natural selection of the most efficient free energy transduction. Empirical evidence which challenges the current genetic basis of cell and molecular biology and which supports the above proposal is discussed.     

Genetic monitoring as a promising tool for conservation and management

In response to ever-increasing anthropogenic changes to natural ecosystems, regional, national and international organizations have established guidelines for monitoring biological diversity. Most monitoring programs, however, do not take full advantage of the potential afforded by molecular genetic markers, which can provide information relevant to both ecological and evolutionary time frames, while costing less and being more sensitive and reliable than traditional monitoring approaches. As several molecular and computational approaches are relatively new, many technical and theoretical issues remain to be resolved. Here, we illustrate how DNA and population genetic data can provide valuable information, often unattainable via other approaches, for monitoring species of management, conservation and ecological interest.     

A broader view of conservation

A review of Conservation in a Changing World, edited by Georgina M. Mace, Andrew Balmford, and Joshua R. Ginsburg. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998, 308 pp. $80.00 hard bound; $34.95 paperback.     

DNA barcoding as a tool for coral reef conservation

DNA Barcoding (DBC) is a method for taxonomic identification of animals that is based entirely on the 5′ portion of the mitochondrial gene, cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI-5). It can be especially useful for identification of larval forms or incomplete specimens lacking diagnostic morphological characters. DBC can also facilitate the discovery of species and in defining “molecular taxonomic units” in problematic groups. However, DBC is not a panacea for coral reef taxonomy. In two of the most ecologically important groups on coral reefs, the Anthozoa and Porifera, COI-5 sequences have diverged too little to be diagnostic for all species. Other problems for DBC include paraphyly in mitochondrial gene trees and lack of differentiation between hybrids and their maternal ancestors. DBC also depends on the availability of databases of COI-5 sequences, which are still in early stages of development. A global effort to barcode all fish species has demonstrated the importance of large-scale coordination and is yielding promising results. Whether or not COI-5 by itself is sufficient for species assignments has become a contentious question; it is generally advantageous to use sequences from multiple loci.     

Cryptic species as a window on diversity and conservation

The taxonomic challenge posed by cryptic species (two or more distinct species classified as a single species) has been recognized for nearly 300 years, but the advent of relatively inexpensive and rapid DNA sequencing has given biologists a new tool for detecting and differentiating morphologically similar species. Here, we synthesize the literature on cryptic and sibling species and discuss trends in their discovery. However, a lack of systematic studies leaves many questions open, such as whether cryptic species are more common in particular habitats, latitudes or taxonomic groups. The discovery of cryptic species is likely to be non-random with regard to taxon and biome and, hence, could have profound implications for evolutionary theory, biogeography and conservation planning.     

Protein translocation as a tool: The current rapamycin story

In cell biology and pharmacology, small chemicals are mostly used as agonists and antagonists against receptors and enzymes. The immunosuppressant rapamycin can serve an entirely different purpose: if employed sensibly, it might function as an inducer of dimerization that is able to rapidly activate enzyme activity inside the intact cell. A number of very recent developments such as photoactivatable derivatives make rapamycin an even more attractive tool for basic science.     

Bayesian Belief Networks as a tool for evidence-based conservation management

Effective conservation management is dependent on accessing and integrating different forms of evidence regarding the potential impacts of management interventions. Here, we explore the application of Bayesian Belief Networks (BBN), which are graphical models that incorporate probabilistic relationships among variables of interest, to evidence-based conservation management. We consider four case studies, namely: (i) impacts of deer grazing on saltmarsh vegetation; (ii) impacts of burning on upland bog vegetation; (iii) control of the invasive exotic plant Rhododendron ponticum; and (iv) management of lowland heathland by burning. Each of these themes is currently a significant conservation issue in the UK, and yet the potential outcomes of management interventions are poorly understood. Through these examples, we demonstrate that BBNs can be used to integrate and explore evidence from a variety of sources, including expert opinion and quantitative results from research investigations. Incorporation of such information in BBNs enables different sources of evidence to be compared, the potential impacts of management interventions to be explored and management trade-offs to be identified. BBNs also offer a highly visual tool for communicating the uncertainty associated with potential management outcomes to conservation practitioners, and they can also be readily updated as new evidence becomes available. Based on these features, we suggest that BBNs have outstanding potential for supporting evidence-based approaches to conservation management.     

Plant communities as a tool in temporary ponds conservation in SW Portugal

Temporary ponds are seasonal wetlands annually subjected to extreme and unstable ecological conditions, neither truly aquatic nor truly terrestrial. This habitat and its flora have been poorly studied and documented because of the ephemeral character of the flora, the changeable annual weather that has a great effect on the small, herbaceous taxa and the declining abundance of temporary ponds. The objectives of this study are: (a) to define plant community diversity in terms of floristic composition of ephemeral wetlands in SW Portugal, (b) to identify temporary pond types according to their vegetation composition and (c) to identify those ponds that configure the European community priority habitat (3170* – Mediterranean temporary ponds). Vegetation sampling was conducted in 29 ponds, identifying 168 species grouped among 15 plant communities. Soil texture, pH, organic C and N content were measured, but only N and percent of clay appear to be related with the distribution of each community type. The results showed that ephemeral wetlands could be classified into four type: vernal pools, marshlands, deep ponds and disturbed wetlands. Vernal pools correspond to the Mediterranean temporary ponds (3170*), protected as priority habitat under the EU Habitats Directive. Submersed Isoetes species (Isoetes setaceum and Isoetes velatum) represents, together with Eryngium corniculatum, the indicator species for vernal pools. We identify also indicator plant communities of this priority habitat, namely I. setaceum and E. corniculatum–Baldellia ranunculoides plant communities. In this region, the conservation of temporary ponds has so far been compatible with traditional agricultural activities, but today these ponds are endangered by the intensification of agriculture and the loss of traditional land use practices and by the development of tourism. Guest editors: B. Oertli, R. Cereghino, A. Hull & R. Miracle Pond Conservation: From Science to Practice. 3rd Conference of the European Pond Conservation Network, Valencia, Spain, 14–16 May 2008     

Embryonic stem-cell culture as a tool for developmental cell biology

The cell biology of the early processes of mammalian embryogenesis, such as germ-layer formation, has been technically challenging to study owing to the size and accessibility of mammalian embryos. Embryonic stem cells, which can generate the three germ layers in vitro, are useful for studying embryogenesis at the cellular level. So, how can the study of embryonic stem cells and their differentiation provide a deeper understanding of the cell biology of early development?     

A systems biology view of cancer

In order to understand how a cancer cell is functionally different from a normal cell it is necessary to assess the complex network of pathways involving gene regulation, signaling, and cell metabolism, and the alterations in its dynamics caused by the several different types of mutations leading to malignancy. Since the network is typically complex, with multiple connections between pathways and important feedback loops, it is crucial to represent it in the form of a computational model that can be used for a rigorous analysis. This is the approach of systems biology, made possible by new -omics data generation technologies. The goal of this review is to illustrate this approach and its utility for our understanding of cancer. After a discussion of recent progress using a network-centric approach, three case studies related to diagnostics, therapy, and drug development are presented in detail. They focus on breast cancer, B-cell lymphomas, and colorectal cancer. The discussion is centered on key mathematical and computational tools common to a systems biology approach.