Is research effort allocated efficiently for conservation? Felidae as a global case study

Some species face greater anthropogenic threats than others, and have increased need for scarce conservation resources. Yet how resources are allocated for conservation remains little known. I examined the distribution of research effort, an index of resource allocation, across Felidae (the cat family), a diverse, widely-distributed, and threatened taxon. I performed complete searches of the published literature for all cat species from 1986 to 2007, collecting a total of 2,462 papers, of which 926 represented in situ studies. Threat status, as ranked by a World Conservation Union report in 1996, was significantly correlated with geographical range size, with narrowly distributed species tending to be more at risk. Unlike in many other taxa, threat status was not correlated with body size. The number of total and in situ publications (“research effort”) per species was significantly and positively related to body size, but not to threat status or geographical range size. Research effort, rather than being distributed according to actual threat status, is highly skewed towards large species. However, the ratio of the number of studies on the 10 smallest cat species to the number on the 10 largest species has increased significantly since 1986. Yet many species remain severely understudied; I identify 14 cat species that are threatened and have <10 in situ publications each. These species critically require a greater share of the conservation research effort.     

Abundance–suitability relationships for invasive species: Epiphyas postvittana as a case study

Biological Invasions - Prediction of the geographic distribution of an exotic species in a new environment is an important element of risk assessment as it provides an assessment of the spatial...     

The cold‐adapted population of Folsomia manolachei (Hexapoda,Collembola) from a glaciated karst doline of Central Europe: evidence for a cryptic species?

Folsomia manolachei Bagnall, 1939 (Collembola), is a widespread and common European species. However, it may represent a complex of species also associated with the climatically more extreme environments of the karst landforms. Three species of the genus Folsomia, distributed in the Slovak Karst region (Central Europe), namely three different populations of F. manolachei, and one population of F. penicula and F. candida, were analysed using a partial sequence of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI barcoding section). The DNA barcoding suggested the existence of cryptic diversity in populations of the eurytopic species Folsomia manolachei. The cold‐adapted population of ‘F. manolachei’ was abundant in primary soil on stony debris near the permanent floor ice (yearly air temperature ~0°C) in the collapsed karst doline of the Silická ?adnica Ice Cave. It showed a genetic differentiation supported by intra‐ and interspecific distances that ranged from 0.0% to 1.4% and from 19.2% to 24.0%, respectively. Analysis using Taxon DNA showed a large barcoding gap between intra‐ and interspecific COI sequences. Genetic differentiation suggests a scenario of cryptic speciation in the population of ‘F. manolachei’ occupying harsh soils near the floor ice. A survival test showed the different responses of ‘F. manolachei’ and other populations to low temperature. Within a temperature range from ?3 to ?10°C, the ‘F. manolachei’ population from Silická ?adnica was the most cold‐resistant, showing a lethal dose LD₅₀ of ?7.8°C. The two forest populations of F. manolachei had LD₅₀ ?6.1°C and ?6.0°C, respectively; the most cold‐sensitive F. penicula showed an LD₅₀ of ?5.4°C. The survival of the tested springtails significantly decreased with temperature (p < 0.0001). The lethal temperature and the shape of the survival–temperature curves were different in different populations. The impact of population was significant at p < 0.0001, and the interaction between population and temperature at p < 0.039 was significant as well. Crypticity vs. phenotypic plasticity in Folsomia manolachei populations is discussed in terms of DNA barcoding and the cold tolerance data provided by this study.     

Is landscape fragmentation always detrimental for species conservation? The case of the Iberian lynx in central Spain

The patch-corridor-matrix is the most commonly used model when dealing with landscape characterization studies, but it shows relevant limitations to detect landscape heterogeneity. Other authors have used a functional approach, since it is well known that nutrient, mineral and energy flows exist among ecosystems. These flows can be perceived in boundaries between different landcovers, making possible the identification of spatial units sharing a common pattern of ecological interactions known as mosaics. While the influence of each mosaic over a certain species has been previously addressed, no attention has been given to the intra-mosaic variation. The aim of this research is to assess the influence of functional diversity and connectivity, on the habitat suitability of the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). For this, we built two GLMs to test if these features show a differential effect on lynxes’ habitat suitability depending on the mosaic. Both GLMs built show that the influence of these landscape features on lynxes’ habitat suitability depends on the landscape spatial organization and landcover composition, suggesting that there is no unique response of a species to changes in landscape diversity and/or connectivity. Thus, we conclude that considering both landscape and species features would allow to a better integration of land management strategies and conservation actions, which could favor species adaptation to highly human-modified landscapes.     

Why flowers close at noon? A case study of an alpine species Gentianopsis paludosa (Gentianaceae)

Repeatable floral closure with diurnal rhythms, that is, flower opening in the morning and closing in the evening, was widely reported. However, the rhythm of flower opening in the morning but closing in the midday received much less attention. Gentianopsis paludosa, Gentianaceae, has an obvious petal movement rhythm opening in the morning and closing at noon at northeast of the Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau. In this study, we examined the effects of temperature (T), relative humidity (RH), and illumination intensity (II) on G. paludosa''s flower closure. Furthermore, we monitored the environmental changes inside and outside of the flowers, aiming to test the effect of floral closure on the stability of microenvironment inside the flower. Finally, we artificially interrupted temporal petal closure and investigated its effects on reproductive fitness. The results showed that high/low temperature contributed more to the flower closure than low RH, while illumination intensity had no significant effect on it. The medium temperature, relative humidity and illumination intensity (environmental conditions at 10:00) did not delay flower closure when flowers at pre‐closing period or stimulate reopen when flowers full closed. Floral closure provided a stable temperature condition and a higher RH condition inside the flower. Meanwhile, compulsive opening and delayed closure of flowers decreased the seed‐set ratio while no effect was found when flowers were forced to close. We conclude that endogenous rhythm regulates floral closure. The rhythm of petal movement providing a stable microenvironment for G. paludosa, increasing the seed production and saving energy from flower opening maintenance, which might be an adaptive strategy to against unfavorable environmental conditions.     

Is use of translocation for the conservation of subpopulations of oribi Ourebia ourebi (Zimmermann) effective? A case study

In South Africa, the oribi, Ourebia ourebi is an endangered small antelope that requires conservation management and intervention to prevent their extinction. Use of translocation for the conservation of subpopulations facing local extinction in the wild has been proposed. In this study, fifteen oribi from threatened populations were captured and released (November 2004) on a private game reserve in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Radio telemetry was used to monitor the dispersal and survival of translocated oribi. Only one death occurred during that period. All other released oribi survived, and most remained in close proximity of the release site for more than a year postrelease. Reproduction also occurred. This suggests that, translocation could be a viable option for conserving wild populations of oribi, assuming that other factors, such as availability of suitable grassland habitat and that poaching has been curtailed, are met.     

Simulations of UV–visible spectra for analytical applications: phenothiazines as a case study

Simulation of UV–vis spectra over the whole absorption window requires not only an accurate approach for the estimation of electronic transitions' energies, but also to take properly into account solvent and band-broadening effects. Although the first, solvent, can be easily introduced in quantum-chemical calculations at both implicit and explicit levels, the second, band broadening, is more troublesome to evaluate. To this end, in this contribution, we propose a protocol aimed to correctly simulate the whole absorption UV–vis spectra of organic molecules based on time-dependent density functional theory, coupled with implicit and explicit solvent models, and on the use of a fitting procedure with respect to the experimental data in order to define the best band broadening. This protocol is applied to the simulation of absorption spectra of 10H-phenothiazine and three related molecules, N,N-diphenylamine, iminodibenzyl and 10H-phenothiazine-5-oxide, which appear as impurities during its industrial synthesis. The obtained results show not only that the main peak positions are reproduced with an error not exceeding 10 nm (in the 200–400 nm range) but also that the overall shape of the UV–vis spectra can be correctly simulated.     

Are Chironomidae (Diptera) good indicators of water scarcity? Dryland streams as a case study

Water scarcity is becoming one of the greatest challenges that human societies will face during this century. Monitoring water availability is expensive and technically challenging. In this regard, biological communities (e.g. aquatic insects) offer a cost-effective alternative, since they integrate temporal and spatial hydrological variability.Here we explore the potential of Chironomidae (Diptera), which have been usually neglected due to their complex taxonomy, as indicators of both local habitat condition and water scarcity. The study took place in 28 sites across seven dryland streams distributed within a 400 km² section of the Upper San Pedro River basin, southeastern Arizona. The selected streams covered a wide range of hydrological variability, which was continuously measured through the deployment of 15 electrical resistance (ER) sensors. Chironomidae taxa with no drought-resistance strategies were rarely found in streams that experienced frequent drying events (i.e. intermittent and ephemeral streams), suggesting that droughts have the potential to reduce species richness due to local extinctions of drought-intolerant taxa. Intermittent and ephemeral streams registered low canopy cover and a significantly higher abundance of scrapers (which mainly feed on algae) and shredders (feeding on poorly decomposed coarse organic material). This suggests that structural changes associated to drought (e.g. reduced canopy cover and decomposition rates) might lead to changes in the functional composition of the Chironomidae assemblages. We conclude that Chironomidae species can be used as indicators of hydrological variability and the impacts of drought on streams in the absence of flow gauges.     

Festuca inops and Festuca gracilior (Poaceae): are they two different species?

According to current systematics, Festuca inops and F. gracilior are two distinct species. However, they are hardly distinguishable from each other on the basis of their morphological characters. Festuca inops is considered a diploid species endemic to Italy, while F. gracilior has a discontinuous distribution area, apparently related to chromosomal levels: diploid populations in Italy and south-east France, tetraploid populations in north-east Spain. The diploid populations of both taxa from Italy and south-east France are investigated in the present study. Nearly 1000 exsiccata were examined and morphometric analysis was carried out on macro- and micromorphological features of 119 specimens (including type-specimens) and on 20 natural populations (including loci classici ). All these data showed that the two species should be referred to a single taxon, for which the rank of species seems to be appropriate. This result is supported by karyological, ecological and chorological data and was confirmed by the results of ISSR analysis. According to nomenclatural rules, the legitimate name for the species is Festuca inops De Not.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 151 , 239–258.     

Threatened and endemic species: are they good indicators of patterns of biodiversity on a national scale?

Endemic and/or threatened species are often targeted to set conservation priorities. It is tempting to assume that a reserve network focusing on these species will be an effective umbrella for overall species richness of a country. For South Africa and Lesotho we tested whether complementary networks selected for threatened and/or endemic bird species satisfactorily represent all bird species, both in terms of capturing areas where other species are present or areas where they are more abundant (and, presumably, more viable). We found that areas selected for threatened and endemic species perform considerably better than areas selected at random. However, they do not guarantee the representation of overall bird species diversity, particularly not in peak abundance locations. Although nationally threatened and endemic species are important conservation targets, our results indicate that reserve networks focusing solely on these species may not be sufficient to preserve overall species diversity in a country.     

Biodiversity and endemism mapping as a tool for regional conservation planning – case study of the Pleurothallidinae (Orchidaceae) of the Andean rain forests in Bolivia

Analyses of species diversity and endemism patterns provide vital inputs for conservation planning. Therefore, it is an important dilemma of biodiversity conservation that in very diverse but poorly studied tropical countries those patterns can hardly be considered. Consequently, there is an urgent need to develop prediction models that make the best use of existing data on species distribution and that can give hints on spatial conservation priorities. This paper presents the results of a pilot study on the diversity of the orchid subtribe Pleurothallidinae (331 mapped species) in the Andean rain forests of Bolivia. Results of a taxon-based mapping methodology, using abiotic (humidity and temperature, the latter indicated by altitude) and historical factors (taken into account as distance from collection localities) that determine species ranges, are compared with outcomes of an inventory-based mapping approach. The patterns of taxon-based diversity and endemism show a strong correlation with the distribution of sample localities. The inventory-based approach is more reliable, but it is interesting to apply both mapping methods in order to make a critical interpretation and comparison that facilitates some valuable conservation recommendations. We end with concrete conclusions for conservation planning and action.     

How natural is a nature reserve?: an ideological study of British nature conservation landscapes

Areas set apart for nature conservation in Britain are broadly categorised according to their cultural purpose, and names are assigned to these in this paper. Nature reserves may be similar to zoos and botanic gardens in aiming to maintain the diversity of species and if so are termed biodiversity reserves. This tradition understands nature as a static collection of entities apart from humans. Maintaining traditional management at a site is arguably a good way to sustain species, it also retains old ways in which humans and nature were integrated in the life of the nation and so are called historic countryside parks. There is growing interest in wilderness areas, where nature is seen as primarily processes protected from human interference. Despite the strength of each of these, they suffer from attempting to restrict nature to a ghetto, a process that is economically and environmentally costly. Companion places are places which set sustainable examples of integrating human life and economic activity with maintaining biodiversity and offering an opportunity to encounter wild processes at the heart of life. The language of these four types, or vectors, of nature reserves is offered to help the discussion of our place in nature.     

Description of an invasive new species of Neotropical aleurodicine whitefly (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) - a case of complete or partial misidentification?

Paraleyrodes pseudonaranjae sp. n. is here described, from material collected from invasive colonies affecting agriculture in Hong Kong, Hawaii and the USA (Florida). This species had previously been identified as P. naranjae Dozier, based on puparial characteristics, but comparison of adult males with male syntypes of P. naranjae has indicated that identification to be mistaken. An adult male has been selected as lectotype of P. naranjae, but the identity of the puparia of the original sample remains uncertain.     

Is phylogeography helpful for invasive species risk assessment? The case study of the bark beetle genus Dendroctonus

Despite evidence that conspecific lineages may display different climatic tolerances, most invasion risk assessment tools are calibrated without considering phylogeographic information. This study aims to investigate the existence of intraspecific niche divergence within a group of insect pests and to explore how the inclusion of phylogeographic information into species distribution models may alter the estimation of the potential distribution of a species. We studied North American bark beetles belonging to the genus Dendroctonus, a group of pests of conifers that are listed as quarantine species in numerous countries. Most Dendroctonus species exhibit strong genetic divergence that appears to be geographically structured and shaped by historical events and biotic factors. We modeled all lineage distributions within five species, using MaxEnt and Boosted Regression Trees, and compared the results with the models fitted at the species scale. Multivariate analysis and niche similarity and equivalency tests were additionally performed to investigate the existence and magnitude of climatic niche divergence between conspecific lineages. We also tested the ability of lineage‐based models to predict the region invaded by D. valens in China. Conspecific lineages showed a climatic niche more similar than expected by chance, but displayed different climatic envelopes in their native range and, consequently, different estimates of potential distributions. We also observed that classical models calibrated using the entire range of the species could potentially under‐ or overestimate the potential range of the species when compared to a global prediction built by aggregating lineage‐based projections. This study showed that the invasive phylogeographic lineage of D. valens has invaded regions characterized by climatic conditions highly similar to those encountered in its native range suggesting that preadaptations to environment might have played a role in this invasion. This study highlights how our perception of the invasion risk of pests may be altered when integrating phylogeographic information.     

Questioning the implementation of habitat corridors: a case study in interior S?o Paulo using ants as bioindicators.

In this paper we operated ant collections in three inland Atlantic forest fragments and in the neighboring Edmundo Navarro de Andrade State Forest (FEENA), an Eucalyptus plantation located in Rio Claro, interior of S?o Paulo State. We show that the ant communities of the native forest fragments are more similar among themselves than to the ant community of FEENA. Thus we evidence that, in addition to the clear difference in vegetation segment, other components of the biota (like ants) can be different between FEENA and the native forest fragments. Our results conveniently served as a basis to discuss the proposal of connecting FEENA to the three native forest fragments by a habitat corridor. These fragments are important to conservation purposes since they represent the biggest areas of native vegetation in the region.     

Can the problem of hybridization in threatened species be evaluated using a fieldwork research? A case study in snapdragons

Hybridization, natural or artificial, is considered disadvantageous for species biodiversity when it threatens the population integrity of endangered species. Frequently, studies investigating whether hybridization poses a legitimate risk to rare species are based on genetic data obtained in molecular biology laboratories. In this study, we used field research to approach the problem that hybridization could cause for the viability of a population of a rare species and to be able to propose the most appropriate initial conservation strategy. Specifically, using the model genus Antirrhinum, the reproductive barriers between the rare A. pulverulentum and its common congener A. litigiosum have been analysed under the reproductive isolation index (RI). A. pulverulentum had a high value of total RI, indicating that there are barriers to gene flow from A. litigiosum towards this species, and also had a high value for the intrinsic RI, reflecting a low inherent capacity for production of hybrid plants; in addition, the possibility of successful backcrosses between this species with hybrids produced from A. litigiosum ovules were low, given the high intrinsic RI of A. litigiosum. These data indicate the current existence of strong and permanent barriers to hybridization between the two species, suggesting that hybridization does not seem to be a serious problem for the conservation of A. pulverulentum in the studied population, nor for the near future. This study shows how the RI index can provide useful information for conservation purposes and proposes different management recommendations.