Human Health Damages due to Indoor Sources of Organic Compounds and Radioactivity in Life Cycle Impact Assessment of Dwellings - Part 1: Characterisation Factors (8 pp)

- Part 1: Characterisation factors (DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/lca2004.12.194.1) Part 2: Damage scores (DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/lca2004.12.194.2) - Preamble. In this series of two papers, a methodology to calculate damages to human health caused by indoor emissions from building materials is presented and applied. Part 1 presents the theoretical foundation of the indoor emission methodology developed, as well as characterisation factors calculated for 36 organic compounds, radon and gamma radiation. Part 2 calculates damage scores of building materials with the characterisation factors presented in part 1. The relevancy of including indoor air emission in the full damage scores at a material level and a dwelling level is also quantified and discussed. Goal, Scope and Background Methodologies based on life cycle assessment have been developed to calculate the environmental impact of dwellings. Human health damage due to exposure to substances emitted to indoor air are not included in these methodologies. In order to compare this damage with human health damages associated with the rest of the life cycle of the dwelling, a methodology has been developed to calculate damages to human health caused by pollutants emitted from building materials. Methods Fate, exposure and health effects are addressed in the calculation procedure. The methodology is suitable for organic substances, radon and elements emitting gamma radiation. The (Dutch reference) dwelling used in the calculation was divided in three compartments: crawl space, first floor and second floor. Fate factors have been calculated based on indoor and outdoor intake fractions, dose conversion factors or extrapolation from measurements. Effect factors have been calculated based on unit risk factors, (extrapolated) effect doses or linear relationship between dose and cancer cases. Damage factors are based on disability adjusted life years (DALYs). Results and Discussion Characterisation factors have been calculated for 36 organic compounds, radon and gamma radiation emitted by building materials applied in a Dutch reference dwelling. For organic compounds and radon, the characterisation factors of emissions to the second floor are 10–20% higher than the characterisation factors of emissions to the first floor. For the first and second floor, the characterisation factors are dominated by damage to human health as a result of indoor exposure. The relative contribution of carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects to the characterisation factors is generally within one order of magnitude, and up to three orders of magnitude for formaldehyde. Conclusion Health effects due to indoor exposure to pollutants emitted from building materials appear to be dominant in the characterisation factors over outdoor exposure to such pollutants. The health effects of emissions of organic compounds and gamma radiation in the crawl space are very small compared to the health effects of emissions into the other compartments. Using the characterisation factors calculated in this study, it is possible to calculate the human health damage due to emissions of substances and radiation emitted to indoor air and compare this damage with damages to human health associated with the rest of the life cycle of the material. This is the subject of part II of this research.     

基于生命周期方法的生活垃圾资源化利用系统生态效率分析

我国生活垃圾产量大但处理能力不足,产生多种环境危害,对其资源化利用能够缓解环境压力并回收资源。为探讨生活垃圾资源化利用策略,综合生命周期评价与生命周期成本分析方法,建立生态效率模型。以天津市为例,分析和比较焚烧发电、卫生填埋-填埋气发电、与堆肥+卫生填埋3种典型生活垃圾资源化利用情景的生态效率。结果表明,堆肥+卫生填埋情景具有潜在最优生态效率;全球变暖对总环境影响贡献最大,而投资成本对经济影响贡献最大。考虑天津市生活垃圾管理现状,建议鼓励发展生活垃圾干湿组分分离及厨余垃圾堆肥的资源化利用策略。     

Life cycle assessment of emerging technologies at the lab scale: The case of nanowire‐based solar cells

Nanomaterials are expected to play an important role in the development of sustainable products. The use of nanomaterials in solar cells has the potential to increase their conversion efficiency. In this study, we performed a life cycle assessment (LCA) for an emerging nanowire‐based solar technology. Two lab‐scale manufacturing routes for the production of nanowire‐based solar cells have been compared—the direct growth of GaInP nanowires on silicon substrate and the growth of InP nanowires on native substrate, peel off, and transfer to silicon substrate. The analysis revealed critical raw materials and processes of the current lab‐scale manufacturing routes such as the use of trifluoromethane (CHF₃), gold, and an InP wafer and a stamp, which are used and discarded. The environmental performance of the two production routes under different scenarios has been assessed. The scenarios include the use of an alternative process to reduce the gold requirements—electroplating instead of metallization, recovery of gold, and reuse of the InP wafer and the stamp. A number of suggestions, based on the LCA results—including minimization of the use of gold and further exploration for upscaling of the electroplating process, the increase in the lifetimes of the wafer and the stamp, and the use of fluorine‐free etching materials—have been communicated to the researchers in order to improve the environmental performance of the technology. Finally, the usefulness and limitations of lab‐scale LCA as a tool to guide the sustainable development of emerging technologies are discussed.     

Import‐based Indicator for the Geopolitical Supply Risk of Raw Materials in Life Cycle Sustainability Assessments

There is a growing concern over the security and sustainable supply of raw material among businesses and governments of developed, material‐intensive countries. This has led to the development of a systematic analysis of risk incorporated with raw materials usage, often referred as criticality assessment. In principle, this concept is based on the material flow approach. The potential role of life cycle assessment (LCA) to integrate resource criticality through broadening its scope into the life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) framework has been discussed within the LCA communities for some time. In this article, we aim at answering the question of how to proceed toward integration of the geopolitical aspect of resource criticality into the LCSA framework. The article focuses on the assessment of the geopolitical supply risk of 14 resources imported to the seven major advanced economies and the five most relevant emerging countries. Unlike a few previous studies, we propose a new method of calculation for the geopolitical supply risk, which is differentiated by countries based on the import patterns instead of a global production distribution. Our results suggest that rare earth elements, tungsten, antimony, and beryllium generally pose high geopolitical supply risk. Results from the Monte Carlo simulation allow consideration of data uncertainties for result interpretation. Issues concerning the consideration of the full supply chain are exemplarily discussed for cobalt. Our research broadens the scope of LCA from only environmental performance to a resource supply‐risk assessment tool that includes accessibility owing to political instability and market concentration under the LCSA framework.     

Approaches for inclusion of forest carbon cycle in life cycle assessment – a review

Forests are a significant pool of terrestrial carbon. A key feature related to forest biomass harvesting and use is the typical time difference between carbon release into and sequestration from the atmosphere. Traditionally, the use of sustainably grown biomass has been considered as carbon neutral in life cycle assessment (LCA) studies. However, various approaches to account for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and sinks of forest biomass acquisition and use have also been developed and applied, resulting in different conclusions on climate impacts of forest products. The aim of this study is to summarize, clarify, and assess the suitability of these approaches for LCA. A literature review is carried out, and the results are analyzed through an assessment framework. The different approaches are reviewed through their approach to the definition of reference land‐use situation, consideration of time frame and timing of carbon emissions and sequestration, substitution credits, and indicators applied to measure climate impacts. On the basis of the review, it is concluded that, to account for GHG emissions and the related climate impacts objectively, biomass carbon stored in the products and the timing of sinks and emissions should be taken into account in LCA. The reference situation for forest land use has to be defined appropriately, describing the development in the absence of the studied system. We suggest the use of some climate impact indicator that takes the timing of the emissions and sinks into consideration and enables the use of different time frames. If substitution credits are considered, they need to be transparently presented in the results. Instead of carbon stock values taken from the literature, the use of dynamic forest models is recommended.     

A Systems Approach to Sustainable Technical Product Design

Many existing methods for sustainable technical product design focus on environmental efficiency while lacking a framework for a holistic, sustainable design approach that includes combined social, technical, economic, and environmental aspects in the whole product life cycle, and that provides guidance on a technical product development level. This research proposes a framework for sustainable technical product design in the case of skis. We developed a ski under the Grown brand, benchmarked according to social, environmental, economic, and technical targets, following an initial sustainability assessment, and delivered the first environmental life cycle assessment (ELCA) and the first social life cycle assessment (SLCA) of skis. The framework applies a virtual development process as a combination of ELCA to calculate the environmental footprint as carbon equivalents of all materials and processes and a technical computer‐aided design (CAD) and computer‐aided engineering (CAE) simulation and virtual optimization using parameter studies for the nearly prototype‐free development of the benchmarked skis. The feedback loops between life cycle assessment (LCA) and virtual simulation led to the elimination of highly energy intensive materials, to the pioneering use of basalt fibers in skis, to the optimization of the use of natural materials using protective coatings from natural resins, and to the optimization of the production process. From an environmental perspective, a minimum 32% reduction in carbon equivalent emissions of materials in relation to other comparably performing skis has been achieved, as well as a pioneering step forward toward transparent communication of the environmental performance by the individual, comparable, and first published ski carbon footprint per volume unit.     

Life Cycle Assessment of Water: From the pumping station to the wastewater treatment plant (9 pp)

Goal, Scope and Background The goal of this study is to determine the environmental impact of using one cubic metre of water in the Walloon Region. The whole anthropogenic water cycle is analysed, from the pumping stations to the wastewater treatment plants. The functional unit has been defined as one cubic metre of water at the consumer tap. This study was carried out in the context of the EU Water Framework Directive. It is part of a programme called PIRENE launched by the Walloon Region to fulfil the requirements of this Directive. Methods A model of the whole anthropogenic water cycle in the Walloon Region was developed. The model is mainly based on site-specific data given by the companies working in the field of water production and wastewater treatment. It was used to assess the environmental impact from the pumping station to the wastewater treatment plant using the Eco-Indicator 99 methodology. Eco-Indicator 99 has been adapted in order to better take into account environmental impact of acidification and eutrophication. Characterisation factors have been calculated for COD, nitrogen and phosphate emissions. From the reference model, different scenarios have been elaborated. Results and Discussion On the basis of the inventory, the environmental impact of five scenarios has been evaluated. Acidification and eutrophication is the most important impact category. It is mainly caused by the wastewater that is discharged without any treatment, but also by the effluent of the wastewater treatment plant. So, this impact category has the lowest environmental load when the wastewater treatment rate is high. For the other impact categories, the impact generally increases with the wastewater treatment rate. During wastewater treatment, energy and chemicals are indeed consumed to improve the quality of the final outputs, and thus to reduce the environmental impact related to acidification and eutrophication. A comparison between the scenarios has also shown that the building of the sewer network has a significant contribution to the global environmental load and that the stages before the tap contribute less to the environmental impact than the stage after the tap. Conclusions The three stages that contribute significantly to the global environmental load are: water discharge, wastewater treatment operation and, to a lesser extent, the sewer system. The results show that the wastewater treatment rate must be as high as possible, using either collective or individual wastewater treatment plants. Even a small water discharge without any treatment has a significant environmental impact. Operation of the wastewater treatment plants must also be improved to reduce the environmental impact caused by the effluent of the plants. For new wastewater treatment plants, building plants treating nitrogen and phosphorus should be encouraged. A sensitivity analysis was conducted and showed that the results of the study were not very affected by a modification of key parameters. Impact assessment using the CML methodology has confirmed the results obtained with Eco-Indicator 99.     

Human Health Damages due to Indoor Sources of Organic Compounds and Radioactivity in Life Cycle Impact Assessment of Dwellings - Part 2: Damage Scores (10 pp)

- Part 1: Characterisation factors (DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/lca2004.12.194.1) Part 2: Damage scores (DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/lca2004.12.194.2) - Preamble. In this series of two papers, a methodology to calculate damages to human health caused by indoor emissions from building materials is presented and applied. Part 1 presents the theoretical foundation of the indoor emission methodology developed, as well as characterisation factors calculated for 36 organic compounds, radon and gamma radiation. Part 2 calculates damage scores of building materials with the characterisation factors presented in part 1. The relevancy of including indoor air emission in the full damage scores at a material level and a dwelling level is also quantified and discussed. Goal, Scope and Background In industrialized countries such as the Netherlands, the concentration of pollutants originating from building materials in the indoor environment has shown an increasing trend during the last decades due to improved isolation and decreased ventilation of dwellings. These pollutants may give rise to negative impacts on human health, ranging from irritation to tumours. However, such negative impacts on health are not included in current life cycle assessments of dwellings. In this study, damages to the health of occupants caused by a number of organic compounds and by radioactivity emitted by building materials, including those due to indoor exposure, have been calculated for a number of categories of common building materials. The total damage to human health due to emissions occurring in the use phase of the Dutch reference dwelling is compared with the total damage to human health associated with the rest of the life cycle of the same dwelling. Methods Human health damage scores per kilogram of building material for compartments of the Dutch reference dwelling have been calculated using the methodology described in part I of this research. This methodology includes the calculation of the fate, effect and damage factors, based on disability adjusted life years (DALYs), and has been applied assuming average concentrations of pollutants in building materials. Damage scores for health impacts of exposure to pollutants emitted during the production and the disposal phase of the same building materials were calculated using standard LCIA methodology. Results and Discussion Human health damage scores due to emissions of pollutants occurring in the use phase of building materials applied at the first or second floor are up to 20 times lower or higher than the corresponding damage scores associated with the rest of the life cycle of the same building materials. The damage scores due to emissions occurring in the use phase of building materials applied in the crawlspace are up to 105 times lower than those of building materials applied in the other compartments. The total damage to human health due to emissions occurring in the use phase of the Dutch reference dwelling has the same order of magnitude as the total damage to human health associated with the rest of the life cycle of the same dwelling. At a dwelling level, radon and gamma radiation are dominant in the human health damage score among the pollutants studied. Conclusion Health damages due to indoor exposure to contaminants emitted by building materials cannot be neglected for several materials when compared with damage scores associated with the rest of the life cycle of the same building materials. Indoor exposure to pollutants emitted by building materials should be included in the life cycle assessment of dwellings in order to make the assessment better reflect full impact of the life cycle.     

Economic and Social Impact Assessment of China's Multi‐Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules Production

It is important to have insights into the potential sustainability impacts as early as possible in the development of technology. Solar photovoltaic (PV) technologies provide significant environmental, economic, and social benefits in comparison to the conventional energy sources. Because most previous studies of multi‐crystalline silicon (Multi‐Si) PV modules discuss the environmental impacts, this study quantitatively assesses the economic and social impacts of China's multi‐crystalline silicon (mc‐Si) PV modules production stages. The economic analysis is uses life cycle cost analysis, and the social impact analysis is carried out by applying the social index evaluation method. The economic analysis results demonstrate that the main cost of mc‐Si PV modules production in China lies in raw materials and labor and the production of Multi‐Si PV cells have the highest cost among the five manufacturing processes involved in Multi‐Si PV. The result of the social impact analysis reveal that the employment contribution index, S₁₁, is 0.72, indicating that Multi‐Si PV modules production in China has a prominent contribution to employment in comparison with other industries; the labor civilization degree, S₁₂ (i.e., the proportion of mental labor involved in a given job), and labor income contribution index, S₁₃, are both approximately 0.6, indicating that Multi‐Si PV modules production has a less‐significant labor level and income contribution in comparison with other industries; the production capacity contribution index, S₁₄, is merely 0.183, indicating that production of Multi‐Si PV modules does not contribute significantly to the gross domestic product (GDP). Based on the results of these evaluations, some recommendations to improve the economic and social impact of Multi‐Si PV modules production in China are presented, including support for research on polycrystalline silicon production for the purpose of reducing the raw material cost, as well as upgrading manufacturing facilities and implementing the corresponding production training in order to promote the labor civilization degree.     

Allogromia laticollaris: A Foraminiferan with an Unusual Apogamic Metagenic Life Cycle*

SYNOPSIS. The life cycles of 3 strains of Allogromia laticollaris, a monothalamous foraminiferan, have been studied. Each of the strains had a different, nonclassical, and basically apogamic, life cycle. The Cold Spring Harbor (CSH) strain regularly alternated between 2 agamontic forms: agamont I (uninucleate and diploid) and agamont II (multinucleate and diploid). The complete life cycle took 26 days. Sexual reproduction was rare (0.01%) and autogamous. Small numbers of organisms also underwent budding, binary fission, and cytotomy. The life cycles of the Towd Point (TPA) and Sippewissett (SIP) strains were comparatively abbreviated. Agamont II dominated their typical life cycles, which were completed in 16-18 days. The life cycle of SIP was basically a continuous cycling of the agamont II phase. Approximately 75% of the schizozoites of the TPA strain developed into agamont II. The other 25% alternated between agamont II and agamont I phase. In the CSH strain schizozoites with ～ 8 (range 5-15) nuclei characterized newly formed agamonts II. More nuclei (～ 25) were found in the other 2 strains. The nuclei in young agamonts II underwent rapid morphologic changes leading to a “mushroom-like” chromosome appearance and extensive RNA synthesis. Nucleolar material accumulated at the nuclear periphery and eventually was discharged to the cytoplasm. Karyokinesis took place without the breakdown of the nuclear membrane. The single nucleus of young agamont I forms was proportionally quite large. The S₁ phase occurred quite early (2-5 days) in this part of the life cycle. RNA in the CSH strain formed a compact, subcortical, coarsely granular ring, while in the TPA it was cortical and differentiated into finely granular matrix with randomly distributed coarse granules. During the G₂ phase the nucleus became further enlarged and eventually amoeba-form. Intermediate stages in nuclear breakdown were not found.     

A Market‐Based Framework for Quantifying Displaced Production from Recycling or Reuse

The most significant environmental benefit of recycling or reusing a wide range of products and materials is typically the potential to displace primary material production; lack of displacement significantly reduces the environmental benefits of these activities. Because no consensus method to estimate displacement rate has emerged, environmental assessments have tended to assume that displacement occurs on a one‐to‐one basis. However, displaced production is a complex phenomenon governed primarily by market mechanisms, rather than physical relationships. This article advances the understanding of displacement by presenting a market‐based framework describing the displacement relationship and a methodology for quantifying displacement rate based on partial equilibrium modeling. Using this methodology, a general symbolic equation for displacement rate after an increase in recycling is derived. The model highlights the market mechanisms that govern displaced production and identifies five price response parameters that affect displacement rate. Results suggest that one‐to‐one displacement occurs only under specific parameter restrictions that are unlikely in competitive commodity markets, but zero displacement is possible if secondary materials are poor substitutes for primary materials; displacement is likely to be reduced if secondary materials have inferior technical properties. The presented methodology can be generally applied to any system in which recycled or reused materials are substitutes or complements for primary materials. Implications for improving recycling and reuse efficacy and environmental assessment methodology are discussed, and suggestions are presented for expanding the displacement methodology in future research.     

Human Health Impact as a Boundary Selection Criterion in the Life Cycle Assessment of Pultruded Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composite Materials

The human health impact of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite materials manufactured by the pultrusion industry is not fully understood. In particular, it is unclear whether the human health impact of toxic chemicals present in low concentrations in fire retardant pultruded FRP materials is disproportionately high. This impact may be an important criterion when making boundary selection decisions in the life cycle assessment (LCA) of these materials. The North American pultrusion industry was surveyed to determine resin mix concentration levels and workplace inhalation toxicity exposure levels. LCAs were then conducted on three building panel resin mixes to determine whether the human health impact of toxic chemicals used in the mixes was low enough to exclude the chemicals from the life cycle inventory (LCI) boundary. The first resin mix represented a typical pultruded product, the second mix removed toxic chemicals present in small concentrations, and the third mix replaced toxic chemicals present in small concentrations with a nontoxic chemical. Results showed that toxicity levels fell below exposure limits and no significant difference in human health impact existed among the LCAs. The research concludes that human health impact is a useful criterion when defining an LCI boundary. Toxic chemicals present in small concentrations in pultruded FRP materials may be excluded from the LCI boundary, as their human health impacts are low. Because these levels are marginal in North American pultrusion factories, no changes in resin mixes are recommended for the pultrusion industry.     

榆耳有性结构及生活史的研究

本文通过电镜扫描、石腊切片及用苏木精染色法和DAPI荧光染色,对榆耳子实体有性结构进行观察,证实榆耳子实体菌盖结构分三层:上表层为毛层,表面着生有排列较密集顶端游离的菌丝,它们相互粘连呈菌丝束;中间层为髓部,由较疏松而相互交织在一起的薄壁菌丝组成,菌丝间充满胶质物质;下表层为子实层,表面起伏不平,呈不规则的疣状突起,上面着生担子和囊状体,担子无隔膜棍棒形,外表有不规则的网状纹饰,其顶部着生4个瓶梗状小梗,每个小梗上着生1个椭圆形或腊肠形担孢子,大小为2.5—3.0×6.0—6.5μm,担孢子表面有不规则的网状纹饰结构。在担子间的囊状体为长圆柱形或圆锥形,表面有较密的不规则的网状纹饰。 榆耳有性生殖为异宗配合。绝大多数担孢子含一个细胞核,很少数担孢子含两个细胞核。孢子萌发为一端萌发,也有少数为两端萌发。初生菌丝单核,不能形成子实体,当两种不同遗传性的交配型的初生菌丝结合后,形成具有锁状联合结构的双核菌丝,并可发育成子实体。榆耳具有典型减数分裂过程,不具有减数分裂后核分裂行为,四个子核分别进入四个担孢子内。 在初生菌丝或次生菌丝上,均可产生间生的或顶生的厚垣孢子。经过温度、光照和紫外线照射的诱发,均未发现有其它类型的无性孢子产生。因此,榆耳菌的生活史和大多数担子     

旧石器时代残留物分析:回顾与展望

残留物分析是1970年代在西方发展起来的一项功能学分析技术, 即借助自然科学的多种手段, 对工具表面加工对象残存物的提取和鉴定分析。本文对西方石制品残留物分析研究史做了回顾和综述, 简要介绍此种方法的概念、原理及相关技术问题, 同时对中国旧石器时代石制品残留物分析的前景进行了展望, 希望对相关理论和方法的引进和应用起到铺垫和促进作用。我国旧石器时代考古资源非常丰富, 残留物分析在石器功能解读、遗址环境重建、古人类行为复原和食谱分析等方面都会起到重要的作用, 成为破解很多学术疑点和难题的钥匙。     

Life Cycle Tools within Ford of Europe's Product Sustainability Index. Case Study Ford S-MAX & Ford Galaxy (8 pp)

Background, Aim and Scope Sustainability is a well recognised goal which is difficult to manage due to its complexity. As part of a series of sustainability management tools, a Product Sustainability Index (PSI) is translating the sustainability aspects to the organization of vehicle product development of Ford of Europe, thus allocating ownership and responsibility to that function. PSI is limiting the scope to those key environmental, social and economic characteristics of passenger vehicles that are controllable by the product development organisation. Materials and Methods: The PSI considers environmental, economic and social aspects based on externally reviewed life cycle environmental and cost aspects (Life Cycle Assessment, Cost of ownership / Life Cycle Costing), externally certified aspects (allergy-tested interior) and related aspects as sustainable materials, safety, mobility capability and noise. After the kick-off of their product development in 2002, the new Ford S-MAX and Ford Galaxy are serving as a pilot for this tool. These products are launched in Europe in 2006. The tracking of PSI performance has been done by engineers of the Vehicle Integration department within the product development organization. The method has been translated in an easy spreadsheet tool. Engineers have been trained within one hour trainings. The application of PSI by vehicle integration followed the principle to reduce the need for any incremental time or additional data to a minimum. PSI is adopted to the existing decision-making process. End of 2005, an internal expert conducted a Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) study for verification purposes using commercial software. This study and the PSI have been scrutinized by an external review panel according to ISO14040 and, by taking into consideration the on-going SETAC, work in the field of LCC. Results: The results of the Life Cycle based indicators of PSI as calculated by non-experts are fully in line with those of the more detailed expert study. The difference is below 2%. The new Ford Galaxy and Ford S-MAX shows significantly improved performance regarding the life cycle air quality, use of sustainable materials, restricted substances and safety compared to the previous model Galaxy. The affordability (Life Cycle Cost of Ownership) has also been improved when looking at the same engine types. Looking at gasoline versus diesel options, the detailed study shows under what conditions the diesel options are environmentally preferable and less costly (mileage, fuel prices, etc.). Discussion: The robustness of results has been verified in various ways. Based also on Sensitivity and Monte-Carlo Analysis, case study-specific requirements have been deduced defining criteria for a significant environmental improvement between the various vehicles. Only if the differences of LCIA results between two vehicles are larger than a certain threshold are the above-mentioned results robust. Conclusions: In general terms, an approach has been implemented and externally reviewed that allows non-experts to manage key environmental, social and economic aspects in the product development, also on a vehicle level. This allows mainstream functions to take ownership of sustainability and assigns accountability to those who can really decide on changes affecting the sustainability performance. In the case of Ford S-MAX and Galaxy, indicators from all three dimensions of sustainability (environment, social and economic) have been improved compared to the old Ford Galaxy. Recommendations and Perspectives: Based on this positive experience, it is recommended to make, in large or multinational organizations, the core business functions directly responsible and accountable for managing their own part of environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainability. Staff functions should be limited to starting the process with methodological and training support and making sure that the contributions of the different main functions fit together.     

北京市住宅建筑生命周期碳足迹

从生命周期角度看,建筑碳足迹与能源和建材生产系统具有密切关系。随着技术的进步和节能政策的推进,中国能源的生产和使用,以及建材生产过程中的环境排放都随着时间在持续降低,这将间接地影响到建筑的环境表现。依据1990—2010年期间每5a的中国能源与建材生命周期清单数据,对北京市20年间住宅建筑系统开展生命周期评价和碳足迹核算,以揭示北京市住宅建筑系统的环境负荷变化特征。结果表明,北京市住宅建筑生命周期碳足迹随时间推移呈现降低趋势,主要来自能源系统和建材生产系统的碳减排贡献。不同结构建筑的碳足迹尽管有差异,但也呈现了相似的下降趋势。从生命周期阶段看,建筑碳足迹主要体现在建筑使用阶段和建材生产阶段。尽管建筑使用阶段的节能对于降低建筑生命周期碳足迹具有重要贡献,但节能在经济成本及环境成本方面而言是有限度的。在可持续的环境政策管理制定中,应从生命周期角度,统筹考虑协调各行业减碳的协调发展。论文同时也验证了在生命周期评价中考虑时间变量将有助于更好地利用生命周期评价结果支持环境可持续管理。结论对于城市规划的政策制定、量化环境表现是有益的。     

Life cycle assessment of contaminated sites remediation

For the federal state of Baden-Wiirttemberg, Germany, the decision tool “Umweltbilanz von Altlastensanierungsverfahren” has been developed and found suitable for the quantification and evaluation of environmental impacts caused by remediation of contaminated sites. The developed tool complements the remediation toolbox of Baden-Wiirttemberg. The tool includes a streamlined life cycle assessment (LCA) and a synopsis of the LCA results with the results of a risk assessment of the contaminated site. The risk assessment tool is not explained here. The data base for the life cycle inventory includes several techniques used in remedial actions. The life cycle impact assessment utilises 14 impact categories. The method allows comparisons between remedial options for specific contaminated sites. A software tool has been developed to be available in 1999.     

Longitudinal Analysis of the Eco‐Design Management Standardization Process in Furniture Companies

This article discusses how eco‐design management standards have been adopted and the environmental and economic results that have been obtained by the Spanish furniture manufacturers. This is precisely the industry sector in Spain where the dissemination of eco‐design standards has been most important. Using multiple case‐study methodology, the research has shown that, in three companies, more than 90% of the environmental impact of the companies’ products occurs within the manufacturing phase. Companies have implemented tools for life cycle assessment with eco‐indicators values that allow them to assess complex products and evaluate their significant environmental impacts at each stage. The environmental strategies of these companies are based on the continuous improvement of the internal processes and the review and monitoring of their activities. In this approach, the proper choice of materials and the environmental management of the supply chain are the main problems for companies. The outcomes achieved by the companies included some improvements, such as a greater control of product management and a reduction in operating costs, that have allowed them to obtain competitive advantages. Moreover, the adoption of standard management has enabled the companies to drive innovation of products, improve the image of companies and their products, significantly reduce the environmental impact of their products, and adapt to new, more demanding environmental laws and regulations.     

A Consistent Framework for Assessing the Impacts from Resource Use - A focus on resource functionality (8 pp)

Background The quantification of resource depletion in Life Cycle Assessment has been the topic of much debate; to date no definitive approach for quantifying effects in this impact category has been developed. In this paper we argue that the main reason for this extensive debate is because all methods for quantifying resource depletion impacts have focussed on resource extraction. - Aim and Scope. To further the state of the debate we present a general framework for assessing the impacts of resource use across the entire suite of biotic and abiotic resources. The main aim of this framework is to define the necessary and sufficient set of information required to quantify the effects of resources use. Method logy. Our method is based on a generic concept of the quality state of resource inputs and outputs to and from a production system. Using this approach we show that it is not the extraction of materials which is of concern, but rather the dissipative use and disposal of materials. Using this as a point of departure we develop and define two key variables for use in the modelling of impacts of resource use, namely the ultimate quality limit, which is related to the functionality of the material, and backup technology. Existing methodologies for determining the effects of resource depletion are discussed in the context of this framework. Results We demonstrate the ability of the general framework to describe impacts related to all resource categories: metallic and non-metallic minerals, energy minerals, water, soil, and biotic resources (wild or domesticated plants and animals). Recommendation focus on suggestions for a functionality measure for each of these categories; and how best the two modelling variables derived can be determined.     

Artificial cultivation of true morels: current state,issues and perspectives

Morels (Morchella, Ascomycota), which are some of the most highly prized edible and medicinal mushrooms, are of great economic and scientific value. Morel cultivation has been a research focus worldwide for more than 100 years, and the outdoor cultivation of morels has succeeded and expanded to a large scale in China in recent years. In this study, we review the progress in recent research regarding the life cycle and reproductive systems in the genus Morchella and the current state of outdoor cultivation. Sclerotia formation and conidia production are two important phases during the life cycle. The morel species cultivated commercially in America is M. rufobrunnea based on molecular phylogenetic analysis. The species currently cultivated in China are black morels, including M. importuna, M. sextalata and M. eximia. The field cultivation of morels expanded in the majority of the provinces in China with a yield of fresh morels of 0–7620?kg per ha. The key techniques include spawn production, land preparation and spawning, the addition of exogenous nutrition, fruiting management and harvesting. The application of exogenous nutrition is the most important breakthrough in the field of morel cultivation, but the mechanism remains unclear. It was estimated that the total amount of field cultivated fresh morels was ～500 t in 2015–2016. We also discuss the potential issues remaining in the current literature and suggest directions for future studies.