Preventing pyruvate kinase muscle expression in Chinese hamster ovary cells curbs lactogenic behavior by altering glycolysis,gating pyruvate generation,and increasing pyruvate flux into the TCA cycle

Deletion of the pyruvate kinase muscle (PKM) gene, which is involved in conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate, has been shown to curb lactogenic behavior in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. This study describes the generation of pyruvate kinase muscle isoforms 1 and 2 knockout (PKM-KO) and pyruvate kinase muscle isoform-1 knockout (PKM1-KO) CHO host cells to understand metabolic shifts that reduce lactate secretion in these cells. Glucose and amino acids uptake levels in wild-type (WT), PKM-KO, and PKM1-KO stable cell lines, expressing two different antibodies, were analyzed in 14-day fed-batch production assays using different vessels. PKM-KO and PKM1-KO cells consumed more glucose per cell, altered amino acids metabolism, had higher flux of pyruvate into the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, and as previously shown reduced lactate secretion levels compared with the WT cells. Additionally, both PKM-KO and PKM1-KO cells had higher specific productivity and lower cell growth rates compared with the WT cells. Our findings suggest that rewiring the flux of pyruvate to the TCA cycle by deletion of PKM or PKM1 reduced cell growth and increased specific productivity in CHO cells. Overall, PKM1-KO cells had similar product quality and comparable or better titers relative to the WT cells, hence, targeted deletion of this isoform for curbing lactogenic behavior in CHO cells is suggested.     

Discovery of 2-((1H-benzo[d]imidazol-1-yl)methyl)-4H-pyrido[1,2-a]pyrimidin-4-ones as novel PKM2 activators

The M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase is an emerging target for antitumor therapy. In this letter, we describe the discovery of 2-((1H-benzo[d]imidazol-1-yl)methyl)-4H-pyrido[1,2-a]pyrimidin-4-ones as potent and selective PKM2 activators which were found to have a novel binding mode. The original lead identified from high throughput screening was optimized into an efficient series via computer-aided structure-based drug design. Both a representative compound from this series and an activator described in the literature were used as molecular tools to probe the biological effects of PKM2 activation on cancer cells. Our results suggested that PKM2 activation alone is not sufficient to alter cancer cell metabolism.     

Synthesis and antitumor activity of novel 2, 3-didithiocarbamate substituted naphthoquinones as inhibitors of pyruvate kinase M2 isoform

The M2 isoform of pyruvate kinase (PKM2) is a potential antitumor therapeutic target. In this study, we designed and synthesised a series of 2, 3-didithiocarbamate substituted naphthoquinones as PKM2 inhibitors based on the lead compound 3k that we previously reported. Among them, compound 3f (IC₅₀?=?1.05?±?0.17 µM) and 3h (IC₅₀?=?0.96?±?0.18 µM) exhibited potent inhibition of PKM2, and their inhibitory activities are superior to compound 3k (IC₅₀?=?2.95?±?0.53 µM) and the known PKM2 inhibitor shikonin (IC₅₀?=?8.82?±?2.62 µM). In addition, we evaluated in vitro antiproliferative effects of target compounds using MTS assay. Most target compounds exhibited dose-dependent cytotoxicity with IC₅₀ values in nanomolar concentrations against HCT116, MCF7, Hela, H1299 and B16 cells. These small molecule PKM2 inhibitors not only provide candidate compounds for cancer therapy, but also offer a tool to probe the biological effects of PKM2 inhibition on cancer cells.     

Effect of Calcium and Zinc on Subcellular Distribution, Activity and Thermosensitivity of Superoxide Dismutase in Mnium Affine

In the leafstem moss Mnium affine two superoxide dismutase (SOD) isoforms were found in chloroplasts and two in mitochondria. Four other isozymes were probably cytosolic and two of them had high activity and thermostability and were very sensitive to H₂O₂. On the other hand, one of the mitochondrial isoenzymes was very sensitive to high temperature. The activity and thermosensitivity of SOD was considerably dependent on calcium and zinc ions. The effect was different for the individual isoforms and related to their subcellular distribution. Calcium ions predominantly activated and stabilized one cytosolic and the mitochondrial SODs, while zinc ions influenced one chloroplastic and two cytosolic SODs. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

基于单细胞转录组的基因富集方法分析星形胶质细胞与阿尔茨海默病的关系*

目的:通过生物信息学方法分析阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer disease, AD)中与星形胶质细胞相关的糖代谢通路,为揭示AD患者的星形胶质细胞在大脑中的糖代谢过程提供理论基础。方法:首先根据细胞特异性表达基因将AD患者和健康人脑组织单细胞转录组学测序结果进行降维分析,再根据星形胶质细胞不同亚型的基因表达特征进行细胞分群,对星形胶质细胞差异表达基因进行基因注释(Gene Ontology. GO)、信号通路分析(Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes, KEGG)以及基因集富集分析(Gene Set Enrichment Analysis, GSEA),采用转录调控网络分析与AD的星形胶质细胞相关的转录辅助因子。结果:所有细胞降维分析结果显示AD患者脑内星形胶质细胞和兴奋性神经元数量显著减少;星形胶质细胞降维分析结果显示其可以被进一步分为6个亚群,其中在AD患者中减少的星形胶质细胞主要为RASGEF1B⁺SLC26A3⁺亚群和NRGN⁺CALM1⁺亚群;GO分析结果显示AD患者与健康对照星形胶质细胞差异表达基因主要与轴突发生、神经元的迁移、胶质细胞分化、体内锌离子稳态、突触传递的正调控、血管运输有关。KEGG结果显示,上述差异基因主要与PI3K-Akt信号通路、AMPK信号通路、钙信号通路有关。GSEA分析结果显示,AD患者差异基因在糖酵解/糖异生通路中得到富集,其中丙酮酸激酶PKM、PFKL、ACSS1、乳酸脱氢酶LDHB在AD患者星形胶质细胞中下调。转录调控网络分析结果显示,星形胶质细胞中差异表达转录辅助因子有5个,其中PKM、SOX2、SOX9在AD患者星形胶质细胞中下调。SREBF1和BCL6在AD患者星形胶质细胞中上调。结论:AD患者脑内兴奋性神经元和星形胶质细胞数量降低,以及星形胶质细胞糖酵解相关基因下调。结合星形胶质细胞作为神经元的主要乳酸供应细胞,其数量减少和糖酵解能力减低提示星形胶质细胞供能不足可能是AD发生的机制之一。     

Nuclear PKM2 regulates the Warburg effect

Pyruvate kinase is a rate-limiting glycolytic enzyme. The PKM1 and PKM2 isoforms result from mutually exclusive alternative splicing of the PKM pre-mRNA. PKM2 rather than PKM1 regulates the Warburg effect and tumorigenesis by poorly understood mechanisms. Emerging evidence has revealed that ERK1/2 phosphorylates PKM2, but not PKM1, leading to PIN1-dependent cis–trans isomerization and conversion of PKM2 from a tetramer to a monomer. Monomeric PKM2 translocates into the nucleus, where it functions as a histone kinase and upregulates the expression of c-Myc and cyclin D1, thereby promoting the Warburg effect and cell cycle progression, respectively. Thus, nuclear PKM2 is essential for tumorigenesis and may serve as a target for treating human cancer.     

Molecular Cloning of ADP-Glucose Pyrophosphorylase Large Subunit cDNA from Oncidium

A full-length cDNA for ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase large subunit (AGPL) was isolated from tropical epiphytic orchid Oncidium hybrid Goldiana. The cDNA was 1754 bp in length with an open reading frame of 1551 bp encoding 517 amino acids. The deduced amino acid sequence showed 73 % identity with those of potato isoform 3 (AGPL3) and Arabidopsis thaliana isoform 1 (AGPL1), 71 % identity with that of barley isoform BLPL. RT-PCR analysis showed that AGPL was expressed in mature leaf, immature leaf, developing inflorescence and flower of Oncidium. No expression was detected in roots.     

东亚钳蝎氯毒素通过下调PKM2介导的有氧糖酵解抑制神经胶质瘤细胞的增殖活性

东亚钳蝎氯离子通道毒素(Buthus martensii Karshch chlorion channel toxin,BmK CT)是一类短链神经毒素,在体内和体外均能有效抑制神经胶质瘤细胞侵袭和增殖。然而,BmK CT抑制胶质瘤细胞增殖活性的机制尚不清楚。本研究采用代谢组学的方法探索BmK CT抑制人脑神经胶质瘤细胞增殖的分子机制。首先,通过蛋白质表达纯化获得带有谷胱甘肽S转移酶(glutathione S-transferase, GST)标签的BmK CT蛋白和GST蛋白。利用圆二色谱检测两种蛋白质均具有α-螺旋二级结构,并且融合蛋白质GST-BmK CT热稳定性较好。通过噻唑蓝(methylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium bromide, MTT)法检测GST-BmK CT对神经胶质瘤细胞(U251和A172)增殖的影响。结果显示,与GST处理组相比,1μmol/L GST-BmK CT处理组对U251细胞的抑制率更明显(U251细胞19±1.1 vs. 2.25±0.95,P<0.001, 48 h; A172细胞12±1.4 vs. 2.25±1.25,P<0.001, 48 h)。利用气相色谱-质谱联用仪(gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, GC-MS)分析鉴定出细胞内的63种代谢物,通过通路分析和聚类分析证实,GST-BmK CT处理影响神经胶质瘤细胞的有氧糖酵解。根据峰面积统计数据显示,GST-BmK CT处理降低胞内丙酮酸的含量。GST-BmK CT处理组相比GST组,明显下调胞外培养基的乳酸分泌(16.33±3.78 vs. 35.6±2.31,P<0.001, 48 h),葡萄糖消耗(2.04±0.09 vs. 2.64±0.04,P<0.05, 48 h)和胞内腺苷三磷酸(ATP)含量(633.79±0.001 vs. 5392.71±266.67,P<0.05, 48 h)。结果表明,GST-BmK CT通过下调胶质瘤细胞有氧糖酵解水平降低ATP的生成。实时荧光定量PCR和蛋白质免疫印迹结果显示,GST-BmK CT降低U251细胞丙酮酸激酶(pyruvate kinase M2, PKM2)在转录水平和翻译水平的表达,进一步发现GST-BmK CT通过下调低氧诱导因子(hypoxia inducible factor-1α, HIF-1α)降低PKM2在转录水平的表达。以上结果表明,BmK CT通过下调HIF-1α的表达,降低PKM2介导的有氧糖酵解从而抑制神经胶质瘤细胞的增殖活性。     

Base editing‐mediated perturbation of endogenous PKM1/2 splicing facilitates isoform‐specific functional analysis in vitro and in vivo

Objectives PKM1 and PKM2, which are generated from the alternative splicing of PKM gene, play important roles in tumourigenesis and embryonic development as rate‐limiting enzymes in glycolytic pathway. However, because of the lack of appropriate techniques, the specific functions of the 2 PKM splicing isoforms have not been clarified endogenously yet.Materials and methodsIn this study, we used CRISPR‐based base editors to perturbate the endogenous alternative splicing of PKM by introducing mutations into the splicing junction sites in HCT116 cells and zebrafish embryos. Sanger sequencing, agarose gel electrophoresis and targeted deep sequencing assays were utilized for identifying mutation efficiencies and detecting PKM1/2 splicing isoforms. Cell proliferation assays and RNA‐seq analysis were performed to describe the effects of perturbation of PKM1/2 splicing in tumour cell growth and zebrafish embryo development.ResultsThe splicing sites of PKM, a 5’ donor site of GT and a 3’ acceptor site of AG, were efficiently mutated by cytosine base editor (CBE; BE4max) and adenine base editor (ABE; ABEmax‐NG) with guide RNAs (gRNAs) targeting the splicing sites flanking exons 9 and 10 in HCT116 cells and/or zebrafish embryos. The mutations of the 5’ donor sites of GT flanking exons 9 or 10 into GC resulted in specific loss of PKM1 or PKM2 expression as well as the increase in PKM2 or PKM1 respectively. Specific loss of PKM1 promoted cell proliferation of HCT116 cells and upregulated the expression of cell cycle regulators related to DNA replication and cell cycle phase transition. In contrast, specific loss of PKM2 suppressed cell growth of HCT116 cells and resulted in growth retardation of zebrafish. Meanwhile, we found that mutation of PKM1/2 splicing sites also perturbated the expression of non‐canonical PKM isoforms and produced some novel splicing isoforms.ConclusionsThis work proved that CRISPR‐based base editing strategy can be used to disrupt the endogenous alternative splicing of genes of interest to study the function of specific splicing isoforms in vitro and in vivo. It also reminded us to notice some novel or undesirable splicing isoforms by targeting the splicing junction sites using base editors. In sum, we establish a platform to perturbate endogenous RNA splicing for functional investigation or genetic correction of abnormal splicing events in human diseases.     

Calpain-PKC Inter-Relations in Mouse Hippocampus: A Biochemical Approach

In previous studies, we isolated and identified a -calpain/PKC complex from rabbit skeletal muscle. Here, we have used specific purification procedures in order to study the interactions between -calpain and PKC in mouse hippocampus, a brain structure implicated in memory processes. We observed that -calpain and conventional PKCs (, II and ) are co-eluted after anion exchange chromatography. In contrast to our previous results obtained on skeletal muscle, -calpain and PKC isoenzymes were dissociated after gel filtration chromatography. Furthermore, -calpain induced the proteolytic conversion of PKC, II, and into PKM, II, and with a preferential hydrolysis of PKC, a specific isoenzyme of the nervous system. Although the -calpain/PKC interactions in the hippocampus are quite different from skeletal muscle, our results however, point out the functional importance of these inter-relations. Moreover, as PKC has been involved in the biochemical events underlying learning and memory, the preferential relationship between -calpain and PKC promotes the importance of the role that -calpain could play in the cellular mechanisms of memory formation.     

Crosstalk of mTOR/PKM2 and STAT3/c-Myc signaling pathways regulate the energy metabolism and acidic microenvironment of gastric cancer

Cancer cells consume large amounts of glucose to produce lactate, even in the presence of ample oxygen. This phenomenon is called the Warburg effect. c-Myc is an important member of the Myc gene family and is involved in the development of various tumors. It plays an important role in the regulation of tumor energy metabolism, which can regulate glycolysis to promote the Warburg effect in a tumor. Our study aimed to improve the malignant biological behavior by controlling the energy metabolism of gastric cancer through the mTOR/PKM2 and signal transduction and activator 3 (STAT3)/c-Myc signaling pathways through a series of in vitro experiments. Human gastric cancer AGS and HGC-27 cells were treated with PKM2 and c-Myc lentivirus, and the effects of the knockdown of PKM2 and/or c-Myc were analyzed on cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, the ability of cell migration, and the growth signaling pathway in vitro. The expressions of PKM2, c-Myc, LDHA, STAT3, P-STAT3, GLUT-1 gene were identified by the quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analysis. Lactate and glucose levels were tested by the corresponding kit. Our findings showed that PKM2 and c-Myc were upregulated in human gastric cancer. Knockdown of c-Myc in gastric cancer cells suppressed cell proliferation capacity and glycolysis level, and the inhibitory effects on gastric cancer cells upon co-knockdown of PKM2 and c-Myc were more obvious compared with knockout of PKM2 or c-Myc alone. And there was a correlation between the mTOR/PKM2 and the STAT3/c-Myc signaling pathways. Our results suggested that c-Myc might be considered a potential therapeutic target for gastric cancer and PKM2 combined with c-Myc could better inhibit the malignant biological behaviors of gastric cancer.     

In Vitro Effects of Some Flavones on Human Pyruvate Kinase Isoenzyme M2

PKM2 is an important target for designing anticancer drug. Inhibitors and activators of this enzyme are suitable molecules for use in treating cancer. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of certain flavones on PKM2. Apigenin, wogonin, flavone, 3‐hydroxyflavone, 5‐hydroxyflavone, 6‐hydroxyflavone, and 7‐hydroxyflavone effectively inhibited PKM2, with IC₅₀ in the range of 0.99–2.120 μM. The kinetic study indicated that these compounds acted as noncompetitive with K_i values of 3.53–5.67 μM toward phosphoenolpyruvate. Scutellarin and tangeritin demonstrated strong activation effect with AC₅₀ values < 2 μM. Diosmetin, baicalin, baicalein, and luteolin showed an intermediate‐level activator effect. These results demonstrate that flavone and their analogs could serve as leading compounds to develop new potent and selective inhibitor and activator for PKM2.     

PKM2, cancer metabolism,and the road ahead

A major metabolic aberration associated with cancer is a change in glucose metabolism. Isoform selection of the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase has been implicated in the metabolic phenotype of cancer cells, and specific pyruvate kinase isoforms have been suggested to support divergent energetic and biosynthetic requirements of cells in tumors and normal tissues. PKM2 isoform expression has been closely linked to embryogenesis, tissue repair, and cancer. In contrast, forced expression of the PKM1 isoform has been associated with reduced tumor cell proliferation. Here, we discuss the role that PKM2 plays in cells and provide a historical perspective for how the study of PKM2 has contributed to understanding cancer metabolism. We also review recent studies that raise important questions with regard to the role of PKM2 in both normal and cancer cell metabolism.     

KCNQ1 rescues TMC1 plasma membrane expression but not mechanosensitive channel activity

Transmembrane channel-like protein isoform 1 (TMC1) is essential for the generation of mechano-electrical transducer currents in hair cells of the inner ear. TMC1 disruption causes hair cell degeneration and deafness in mice and humans. Although thought to be expressed at the cell surface in vivo, TMC1 remains in the endoplasmic reticulum when heterologously expressed in standard cell lines, precluding determination of its roles in mechanosensing and pore formation. Here, we report that the KCNQ1 Kv channel forms complexes with TMC1 and rescues its surface expression when coexpressed in Chinese Hamster Ovary cells. TMC1 rescue is specific for KCNQ1 within the KCNQ family, is prevented by a KCNQ1 trafficking-deficient mutation, and is influenced by KCNE β subunits and inhibition of KCNQ1 endocytosis. TMC1 lowers KCNQ1 and KCNQ1-KCNE1 K⁺ currents, and despite the surface expression, it does not detectably respond to mechanical stimulation or high salt. We conclude that TMC1 is not intrinsically mechano- or osmosensitive but has the capacity for cell surface expression, and requires partner protein(s) for surface expression and mechanosensitivity. We suggest that KCNQ1, expression of which is not thought to overlap with TMC1 in hair cells, is a proxy partner bearing structural elements or a sequence motif reminiscent of a true in vivo TMC1 hair cell partner. Discovery of the first reported strategy to rescue TMC1 surface expression should aid future studies of the TMC1 function and native partners.