Introducing an innovative semi‐captive environment for the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta)

In response to demands for research, captive breeding, and tourism, a semi‐captive environment was created for the Philippine tarsiers (Tarsius syrichta) in Corella, Bohol, Philippines. The 7600‐m² enclosure was continuous with the surrounding habitat, and utilized a unique predator control fence design and a lighting system to attract nocturnal insects. During 2 years of observation, the locations of over 500 tarsier sleeping sites were recorded. Tarsiers were found to prefer dense, low‐level vegetation in secondary forests, with perching sites averaging 2 m above the ground. Up to 10 tarsiers were observed within the enclosure at one time, which is a high density compared to densities based on home‐range estimates for wild tarsiers in the vicinity of the study site. In addition, the tarsiers were observed to be more social than previously reported. Zoo Biol 24:101–109, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Population survey of the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) in Corella, Bohol

In 1986, in response to the rapid habitat destruction throughout the archipelago, the Philippine tarsier was classified as endangered. Since that time, this tarsier has been reclassified as data deficient and more recently as near threatened despite a significant lack of information on the population density of the species. Data were collected at the Philippine Tarsier Foundation Sanctuary from June to October 2010. Population density was estimated using a modified form of the quadrat census method. A total of 55 individuals were located within the sampled area. This is equivalent to approximately 1.55 tarsiers per hectare. Ecologically, there were significantly more tarsiers found in the young secondary forest than in areas characterized as old secondary forest. Extrapolating to the entire protected area, as many as 258 tarsiers may reside in the sanctuary. The vegetation plots where tarsiers were found had substantially more trees per plot, contained trees with larger diameters, and contained slightly taller trees than did the plots where no tarsiers were observed.     

Positional behavior and social organization of the philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta)

This study provides preliminary data on the positional behavior and habitat use of the Philippine tarsier,Tarsius syrichta, which was studied in its natural habitat on the island of Leyte. The locomotor behavior ofT. syrichta is quite comparable to the other species of tarsiers but frequency of use of different postures and support types does seem to distinguish this species from the others.Tarsius bancanus appears to be the most specialized, using vertical clinging postures the most frequently and sitting the least;Tarsius dianae uses vertical clinging the least frequently and sitting the most, andT. syrichta is intermediate. The Philippine tarsier has a small home range similar to that ofT. spectrum. On the other hand, this species likely does not have the small family groups typical of Sulawesi tarsiers but instead uses a noyau system likeT. bancanus. This data supports some apsects ofNiemitz’s (1977) model of anatomical and behavioral specialization among tarsier species.     

Small,odd and old: The mysterious Tarsius pumilus is the most basal Sulawesi tarsier

In this study, we present the first genetic evidence of the phylogenetic position of Tarsius pumilus, the mountain tarsier of Sulawesi, Indonesia. This mysterious primate is the only Eastern tarsier species that occurs exclusively in cloud forests above 1800 m.a.s.l. It exhibits striking morphological peculiarities—most prominently its extremely reduced body size, which led to the common name of ‘pygmy tarsier’. However, our results indicate that T. pumilus is not an aberrant form of a lowland tarsier, but in fact, the most basal of all Sulawesi tarsiers. Applying a Bayesian multi-locus coalescent approach, we dated the divergence between the T. pumilus lineage and the ancestor of all other extant Sulawesi tarsiers to 9.88 Mya. This is as deep as the split between the two other tarsier genera Carlito (Philippine tarsiers) and Cephalopachus (Western tarsiers), and predates further tarsier diversification on Sulawesi by around 7 Myr. The date coincides with the deepening of the marine environment between eastern and western Sulawesi, which likely led to allopatric speciation between T. pumilus or its predecessor in the west and the ancestor of all other Sulawesi tarsiers in the east. As the split preceded the emergence of permanent mountains in western Sulawesi, it is unlikely that the shift to montane habitat has driven the formation of the T. pumilus lineage.     

Strengths and Weaknesses of a Population Viability Analysis for Philippine Tarsiers (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Tarsius syrichta</Emphasis>)

Population viability analysis (PVA) has been increasingly used to guide conservation planning for many primate species. I present an assessment of a PVA for Philippine tarsiers (Tarsius syrichta) in Corella, Bohol. The objectives were to determine 1) area requirements and 2) spatial configurations of habitat patches necessary for viable populations in Corella. I used available life history parameters and ecological data for the Philippine tarsier derived from a radiotelemetry study on 4 male and 6 female Tarsius syrichta in Corella from early March to October 1999. I used analysis of the likelihood of extinction (ALEX), a Monte Carlo simulation model that uses pseudorandom numbers to simulate a scenario involving different stochastic processes. Sensitivity analysis showed that the model output, i.e. extinction risk, was influenced by the values used for newborn, juvenile, and adult mortality but the effect of variation on adult mortality was more pronounced; a slight increase in adult mortality renders the population very unstable. Simulation of movements between habitat patches showed that addition of diffusion corridors and variation in diffusion parameters did not significantly alter the probability of extinction of the species. Models are only as useful as the data that are input, and a major weakness of this model is the lack of detailed life history and mortality data for Philippine tarsiers. Future studies should concentrate on obtaining more life history data and ecological data from additional localities. I discuss key priorities for future research that include use of alternative PVA software, a simpler modeling approach, and extensive genetic studies of different Philippine tarsier island populations.     

Predation on a wild Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta)

Little is known about predation on the Philippine tarsier. Only one other case of predation, probably by a cat, has previously been reported. In our study, we present two events of predation, one on a female tarsier by a water monitor lizard, another on an infant tarsier by an unknown predator. We also describe the behaviour of the tarsier mother after losing her infant. Our observations extend current knowledge about predation pressure on the Philippine tarsier.     

Allocare in a nocturnal primate: data on the spectral tarsier, Tarsius spectrum

Non-maternal infant care in many of the small-bodied New World primate species has been hypothesized by some researchers to be related to the high infant/adult weight ratio found in these species. The spectral tarsier, Tarsius spectrum, an Old World primate, has one of the highest infant/adult weight ratios of any primate, with infants weighing between 20-33% of adult weight at birth. On the basis of the hypothesized relationship between allocare and the infant/adult weight ratio, it is predicted that the spectral tarsier will also exhibit extensive allocaretaking behaviour. The results of this study indicate that although spectral tarsiers show care by male and female subadults as well as adult males, it is extremely limited compared to the extensive allocaretaking behavior observed in New World primate species such as Aotus and Callicebus. Spectral tarsier subadult females provide substantially more allocare to infants than do subadult males or adult males. Female subadults were observed sharing food, transporting, grooming, playing, alarm calling, baby-sitting and maintaining physical contact with infants more than other age/sex classes. Although the amount of allocare exhibited by adult males and subadult males was much less than that exhibited by female subadults, the data suggest that adult and subadult male spectral tarsiers do play a small part in the care and socialization of the infant. Adult males and subadult males were both observed occasionally engaging in allocaretaking behaviors such as grooming and playing, as well as frequently patrolling and defending the territory's boundaries. The results from this study suggest that although a high infant/adult weight ratio may be a prerequisite for selection to favor extensive allocare, it is not a causal factor. Additional research is needed in order to understand better the selective pressures involved and the costs and benefits of providing allocare to subadults and adult male spectral tarsiers.     

Breeding behavior in a flock of Chilean flamingos (Phoenicopterus chilensis) at Dublin zoo

The breeding behavior of a flock of Chilean flamingos was observed over a 3‐month period during the peak of breeding activity. This species’ habitat is becoming increasingly vulnerable, and concern has been raised over a decline in wild stocks numbers in the past two decades. Breeding programs in zoos have been established, but with limited success because little is known about the precise criteria and conditions required for breeding these animals. This study was undertaken to gain insight into the breeding behavior of captive Chilean flamingos. A catalogue of mating rituals, nest acquisition and defense, and egg incubation behavior was obtained. The results suggest that new additions to the colony may trigger breeding in the subsequent year and that rainfall has little effect on captive reproductive success. Individually identifiable flamingos were followed throughout the breeding season and detailed quantitative data on their nesting, copulation, and social interactions were obtained. Zoo Biol 19:227–237, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Isolation and characterization of 12 microsatellite loci for population studies of Sulawesi tarsiers (Tarsius spp.)

This study reports the development and characterization of the first 12 microsatellite markers for tarsiers. Nine loci were isolated from Dian's tarsier, Tarsius dianae and three from the Philippine tarsier, Tarsius syrichta. The 12 markers were used to screen 40 individuals of Dian's tarsier and 40 individuals of the Lariang tarsier, Tarsius lariang for allelic diversity. This suite of highly polymorphic microsatellites provides the first chance to genetically study parentage patterns in tarsiers.     

The westernmost tarsier: A new genus and species from the Miocene of Pakistan

As the closest living sister group of anthropoids, tarsiers (Family Tarsiidae) are an important group in primate evolution. However, their fossil record is poor: only four species have been described, two from the Eocene of China and two from the Miocene of Thailand. All are from outside the range of the living species, which occur only on islands off Southeast Asia. Here, we describe a new fossil tarsier from Pakistan, a significant range extension. This record consists of two lower molars, an upper molar, and a lower premolar found in the Miocene Manchar Formation (∼18–16 Ma [millions of years ago]) of Sindh Province, southern Pakistan. The Pakistani tarsier is morphologically distinct from all living and fossil tarsiers, but most similar to the middle Miocene Thai species Tarsius thailandicus. Though living tarsiers have traditionally been classified in a single genus, a recent revision proposed a division into three genera, which is strongly supported by molecular data. The Pakistani species is not referable to any of these genera, and we create for it and T. thailandicus a new tarsiid genus. This discovery broadens our understanding of the geographic range and morphological diversity of Miocene tarsiers and helps to put the living tarsiers into their evolutionary context.     

Conservation Genetics of the Philippine Tarsier: Cryptic Genetic Variation Restructures Conservation Priorities for an Island Archipelago Primate

Establishment of conservation priorities for primates is a particular concern in the island archipelagos of Southeast Asia, where rates of habitat destruction are among the highest in the world. Conservation programs require knowledge of taxonomic diversity to ensure success. The Philippine tarsier is a flagship species that promotes environmental awareness and a thriving ecotourism economy in the Philippines. However, assessment of its conservation status has been impeded by taxonomic uncertainty, a paucity of field studies, and a lack of vouchered specimens and genetic samples available for study in biodiversity repositories. Consequently, conservation priorities are unclear. In this study we use mitochondrial and nuclear DNA to empirically infer geographic partitioning of genetic variation and to identify evolutionarily distinct lineages for conservation action. The distribution of Philippine tarsier genetic diversity is neither congruent with expectations based on biogeographical patterns documented in other Philippine vertebrates, nor does it agree with the most recent Philippine tarsier taxonomic arrangement. We identify three principal evolutionary lineages that do not correspond to the currently recognized subspecies, highlight the discovery of a novel cryptic and range-restricted subcenter of genetic variation in an unanticipated part of the archipelago, and identify additional geographically structured genetic variation that should be the focus of future studies and conservation action. Conservation of this flagship species necessitates establishment of protected areas and targeted conservation programs within the range of each genetically distinct variant of the Philippine tarsier.     

Unique multiple paternity in the endangered big‐headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum) in an ex situ population in South China

Understanding the mating system and reproductive strategies of an endangered species is critical to the success of captive breeding. The big‐headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum) is one of the most threatened turtle species in the world. Captive breeding and reintroduction are necessary to re‐establish wild populations of P. megacephalum in some of its historical ranges in China, where the original populations have been extirpated. However, the captive breeding of P. megacephalum is very difficult and this may be due to its mysterious reproductive strategies and special behavior (e.g., aggressive temperament and territoriality). In this study, we achieved successful captive breeding of P. megacephalum by creating a habitat that mimics natural conditions and then investigated its mating system using microsatellite makers. A total of 16 clutches containing 79 eggs of P. megacephalum were collected, and 52 were hatched successfully over two breeding seasons. Of the 15 effective clutches, 6 clutches (40%) exhibited multiple paternity. There was no significant correlation between clutch size and multiple paternity, and no significant difference in hatching success between multiple‐sired and single‐sired clutches. However, there was significant correlation between male body size and the number of offspring, with higher‐ranked males contributing to more clutches. Our results provide the first evidence of multiple paternity and male hierarchy in P. megacephalum. These findings suggest that multiple paternity and male hierarchy should be considered in captive breeding programs for P. megacephalum, and creating a habitat that mimics natural conditions is an effctive way to achieve successful captive breeding and investigate the mating systems of this species.     

Hand-raising a philippine tarsier,Tarsius syrichta

An infant female tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) weighing 20 g at birth was removed for hand-raising at 1 day of age. The infant was maintained in an incubator (32°C, 80% humidity), and fed every 2–3 hours for the first 10 days of life. The infant received a varied formula for the first 4 days. Esbilac (3.3–8.0 cc daily) was given for days 5–10. From days 11 to 67 the infant was fed 6.5–8.0 cc of formula seven times daily. A liver fortified formula was introduced on day 53. Birthweight doubled by day 41 and tripled by day 101. The animals first successful jump was observed at day 25. On day 68 she captured and ate her first live prey. Introduction to adult tarsiers began on day 60. This is the first successful hand-raising of any species of tarsier, which is a genus that reproduces poorly in captivity.     

Phylogenetic affinities of tarsier in the context of primate Alu repeats

Related genomes tend to be colonized by the same or similar repetitive sequence elements. Analysis of these elements provides useful taxonomic information. We have sequenced Alu repeats from tarsier and compared them with those from strepsirhine prosimians (lemurs, sifaka, and galago) and the human genome. Tarsier elements cluster with Alu subfamilies from the human lineage. The oldest subfamily in tarsier and the most abundant human subfamilies share an RNA secondary structure motif which is absent both in the earliest dimeric Alu Jo and in the strepsirhine elements. These findings are consistent with the view that tarsiers form a sister clade with anthropoides rather than with other prosimians. Alu repeats in tarsier genome are relatively old, which indicates a dramatic slowdown or even an arrest of these elements' amplification about 20 Myr ago.     

Robust estimation of survival and contribution of captive‐bred Mallards Anas platyrhynchos to a wild population in a large‐scale release programme

The survival of captive‐bred individuals from release into the wild to their first breeding season is crucial to assess the success of reintroduction or translocation programmes, and to assess their potential impact of wild populations. However, assessing the survival of captive‐bred individuals following their release is often complicated by immediate dispersal once in the wild. Here, we apply Lindberg's robust design model, a method that incorporates emigration from the study site, to obtain true estimates of survival of captive‐bred Mallards Anas platyrhynchos, a common duck species released on a large scale in Europe since the 1970s. Overall survival rate from release in July until the onset of the next breeding season in April was low (0.18 ± 0.07 se) and equivalent to half the first‐year survival of local wild Mallards. Higher overall detectability and temporary emigration during the hunting period revealed movements in response to hunting pressure. Such low survival of released Mallards during their first year may help prevent large‐scale genetic mixing with the wild population. Nevertheless, by combining our results with regional waterfowl counts, we estimated that a minimum of 34% of the Mallards in the region were of captive origin at the onset of the breeding season. Although most released birds quickly die, restocking for hunting may be of sufficient magnitude to affect the wild population through genetic homogenization or loss of local adaptation. Robust design protocols allow for the estimation of true survival estimates by controlling for permanent and temporary emigration and may require only a moderate increase in fieldwork effort.     

Preliminary Data on the Behavior,Ecology, and Morphology of Pygmy Tarsiers (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Tarsius pumilus</Emphasis>)

We here present the first behavioral, morphological, and ecological data on a living group of highland pygmy tarsiers, Tarsius pumilus, and compare them with the lowland tarsier species of Sulawesi. Pygmy tarsiers were previously known only from 3 museum specimens and had not been seen alive since the first specimens were collected in 1917 and 1930. As part of a 2-mo exploratory study, we recently located a group consisting of ≥4 pygmy tarsiers in the mossy cloud forest of Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. We captured 1 adult female and 2 adult male group members. The tarsiers weighed a mean of 50 g, less than half the weight of adult lowland tarsiers. Our behavioral observations indicate that these tarsiers live in small groups that return to the same sleeping tree each morning. Though our data are preliminary, pygmy tarsier body proportions appear to differ from the lowland Sulawesian tarsier species, with relatively long hind limbs compared to total body length. We also observed differences in grouping and communication behaviors. Unlike lowland tarsiers, pygmy tarsiers possess multiple adult males per group and rarely vocalize or scentmark. These differences may correlate with variables unique to their high altitude habitat, especially a reduction in food and tree resources, given that tree density declined sharply along an altitudinal gradient. Our preliminary study identifies the importance of altitudinal ecological gradients to tarsier behavioral ecology in Central Sulawesi, providing questions and predictions for future research directions.     

The phenotypic costs of captivity

The breeding of threatened species in captivity for release is a central tool in conservation biology. Given gloomy predictions for biodiversity trends in the Anthropocene, captive breeding will play an increasingly important role in preventing future extinctions. Relative to the wild, captive environments drastically alter selection pressures on animals. Phenotypic change in captive animals in response to these altered selection pressures can incur fitness costs post-release, jeopardising their potential contribution to population recovery. We explore the ways in which captive environments can hinder the expression of wild phenotypes. We also stress that the phenotypes of captive-bred animals differ from their wild counterparts in multiple ways that remain poorly understood. We propose five new research questions relating to the impact of captive phenotypes on reintroduction biology. With better use of monitoring and experimental reintroductions, a more robust evidence base should help inform adaptive management and minimise the phenotypic costs of captivity, improving the success of animal reintroductions.     

Effects of captivity,diet, and relocation on the gut bacterial communities of white‐footed mice

Microbes can have important impacts on their host's survival. Captive breeding programs for endangered species include periods of captivity that can ultimately have an impact on reintroduction success. No study to date has investigated the impacts of captive diet on the gut microbiota during the relocation process of generalist species. This study simulated a captive breeding program with white‐footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) to describe the variability in gut microbial community structure and composition during captivity and relocation in their natural habitat, and compared it to wild individuals. Mice born in captivity were fed two different diets, a control with dry standardized pellets and a treatment with nonprocessed components that reflect a version of their wild diet that could be provided in captivity. The mice from the two groups were then relocated to their natural habitat. Relocated mice that had the treatment diet had more phylotypes in common with the wild‐host microbiota than mice under the control diet or mice kept in captivity. These results have broad implications for our understanding of microbial community dynamics and the effects of captivity on reintroduced animals, including the potential impact on the survival of endangered species. This study demonstrates that ex situ conservation actions should consider a more holistic perspective of an animal's biology including its microbes.     

Captive breeding of pangolins: current status,problems and future prospects

Pangolins are unique placental mammals with eight species existing in the world, which have adapted to a highly specialized diet of ants and termites, and are of significance in the control of forest termite disaster. Besides their ecological value, pangolins are extremely important economic animals with the value as medicine and food. At present, illegal hunting and habitat destruction have drastically decreased the wild population of pangolins, pushing them to the edge of extinction. Captive breeding is an important way to protect these species, but because of pangolin’s specialized behaviors and high dependence on natural ecosystem, there still exist many technical barriers to successful captive breeding programs. In this paper, based on the literatures and our practical experience, we reviewed the status and existing problems in captive breeding of pangolins, including four aspects, the naturalistic habitat, dietary husbandry, reproduction and disease control. Some recommendations are presented for effective captive breeding and protection of pangolins.