The hemolymph proteome of the honeybee: Gel‐based or gel‐free?

The honeybee has an invaluable economic impact and is a model for studying immunity, development and social behavior. The recent sequencing and annotation of the honeybee genome facilitates the study of its hemolymph, which reflects the physiological condition and mediates immune responses. We aimed at making a proteomic reference map of honeybee hemolymph and compared gel‐free and gel‐based techniques. One hundered and four 2‐DE spots corresponding to 62 different proteins were identified. Eight identical 2‐DLC experiments resulted in the identification of 32 unique proteins. One repeat was clearly not representative for the potential of the given 2‐DLC setup. Only 27% of the identified hemolymph proteins were found by both techniques. In addition, we found proteins of three different viruses which creates possibilities for biomarker design. Future hemolymph studies will benefit from this work.     

The Saturniidae of Barro Colorado Island,Panama: A model taxon for studying the long‐term effects of climate change?

We have little knowledge of the response of invertebrate assemblages to climate change in tropical ecosystems, and few studies have compiled long‐term data on invertebrates from tropical rainforests. We provide an updated list of the 72 species of Saturniidae moths collected on Barro Colorado Island (BCI), Panama, during the period 1958‐2016. This list will serve as baseline data for assessing long‐term changes of saturniids on BCI in the future, as 81% of the species can be identified by their unique DNA Barcode Index Number, including four cryptic species not yet formally described. A local species pool of 60 + species breeding on BCI appears plausible, but more cryptic species may be discovered in the future. We use monitoring data obtained by light trapping to analyze recent population trends on BCI for saturniid species that were relatively common during 2009‐2016, a period representing >30 saturniid generations. The abundances of 11 species, of 14 tested, could be fitted to significant time‐series models. While the direction of change in abundance was uncertain for most species, two species showed a significant increase over time, and forecast models also suggested continuing increases for most species during 2017‐2018, as compared to the 2009 base year. Peaks in saturniid abundance were most conspicuous during El Niño and La Niña years. In addition to a species‐specific approach, we propose a reproducible functional classification based on five functional traits to analyze the responses of species sharing similar functional attributes in a fluctuating climate. Our results suggest that the abundances of larger body‐size species with good dispersal abilities may increase concomitantly with rising air temperature in the future, because short‐lived adults may allocate less time to increasing body temperature for flight, leaving more time available for searching for mating partners or suitable oviposition sites.     

Fear in the dark? Community‐level effects of non‐lethal predators change with light regime

The total effect of predators on prey is a combination of direct consumption, and non‐consumptive effects (NCEs), such as predator‐induced changes to prey morphology, behaviour and life history. Past research into NCEs has tended to focus on pair‐wise interactions between predators and prey, while in natural ecosystems, species exist in complex communities with several trophic levels made up of multiple autotrophic and heterotropic species. To address how predator NCEs alter the photosynthetic and heterotrophic components of communities, we exposed microbial microcosms to one of three predator treatments: live predators (full predator effect), freeze‐killed predators (NCEs only) or no predators (control), and incubated them under either 12 h:12 h light:dark conditions or continual darkness. Under 12 h:12 h light:dark conditions, NCEs‐only communities never differed from predator‐free communities, but differed from live predator communities. Under conditions of continual darkness, the structure of NCEs‐only communities differed from predator‐free controls, but not from live predator communities, suggesting NCEs can be strong enough to structure communities. Predation threat may cause certain prey to induce defences, such as reductions in movement, which make them less competitive in a community setting. This reduction in competitive ability could lead to these species being driven to extinction through interspecific competition, resulting in similar communities to those in which live predators are present. Heterotrophic species whose rates of resource acquisition depend on movement rates may be affected to a greater extent than autotrophs by predator‐induced reductions in movement, accounting for our observed differences in predator NCEs in ‘dark’ and ‘light’ communities. Our results suggest that the community‐level consequences of fear are greater in the dark. Synthesis Predators affect prey through consumptive and non‐consumptive effects (NCEs) such as alterations to prey behaviour, morphology, and life history. However, predators and prey do not exist in isolated pairs, but in complex communities where they interact with many other species. Using a long term study (>10 predator generations), we show that predator NCEs alone can alter community structure under conditions of darkness, but not in a 12h:12h light:dark cycle. Our results demonstrate for the first time that although the community‐level consequences of predator NCEs may be dramatic, they depend upon the abiotic conditions of the ecosystem.     

The harm principle as a mid-level principle?: three problems from the context of infectious disease control

Effective infectious disease control may require states to restrict the liberty of individuals. Since preventing harm to others is almost universally accepted as a legitimate (prima facie) reason for restricting the liberty of individuals, it seems plausible to employ a mid-level harm principle in infectious disease control. Moral practices like infectious disease control support - or even require - a certain level of theory-modesty. However, employing a mid-level harm principle in infectious disease control faces at least three problems. First, it is unclear what we gain by attaining convergence on a specific formulation of the harm principle. Likely candidates for convergence, a harm principle aimed at preventing harmful conduct, supplemented by considerations of effectiveness and always choosing the least intrusive means still leave ample room for normative disagreement. Second, while mid-level principles are sometimes put forward in response to the problem of normative theories attaching different weight to moral principles, employing a mid-level harm principle completely leaves open how to determine what weight to attach to it in application. Third, there appears to be a trade-off between attaining convergence and finding a formulation of the harm principle that can justify liberty-restrictions in all situations of contagion, including interventions that are commonly allowed. These are not reasons to abandon mid-level theorizing altogether. But there is no reason to be too theory-modest in applied ethics. Morally justifying e.g. if a liberty-restriction in infectious disease control is proportional to the aim of harm-prevention, promptly requires moving beyond the mid-level harm principle.     

Liquid‐based cytology: is this the way forward for cervical screening?

Liquid-based cytology (LBC) is currently being marketed as an alternative methodology to replace the conventional PAP smear in cervical cytology. A substantial body of literature exists in support of LBC, some of which is at least partially sponsored by product manufacturers. The majority of published literature in support of LBC employs Bethesda reporting terminology. In this study we have analysed published raw data and presented this in NHSCSP terminology. Claims relating to sensitivity, specificity and smear adequacy have then been considered with reference to this data. Our analysis of existing data does not support the nationwide implementation of LBC at present. Further studies are recommended in order to evaluate the place of this technology within the NHSCSP.     

Community‐level effects of herbicide‐based restoration treatments: structural benefits but at what cost?

Invasive species alter ecosystem structure, impact biodiversity, and have significant economic costs. In Oregon's Willamette Valley, invasive grasses Arrhenatherum elatius and Schedonorus arundinaceus alter the dynamics of the phenologically paired interaction between an endangered butterfly, Icaricia icarioides fenderi (Fender's blue), and its larval host plant, Lupinus oreganus (Kincaid's lupine). To test methods to restore this interaction, we established a 3‐year experiment where a post‐emergent grass‐specific herbicide, fluazifop‐p‐butyl, was applied to Fender's blue habitat. Plant community data were recorded throughout the growing season at eight paired plots for 1 year prior to treatment and 3 years during treatment. We asked whether annual application of herbicide could reduce the height of invasive grasses to levels at or beneath the height of Kincaid's lupine racemes throughout the Fender's blue flight season. We hypothesized that native forb species, which are critical nectar sources for Fender's blue, would increase in cover and frequency following the release from competitive dominance of invasive grasses. Grass‐specific herbicide reduced grass height during the flight season of Fender's blue, but with several costs. We found no change in nectar and a suppression of lupine growth in plots in response to experimental herbicide treatment. Each study site had multiple secondary invaders; the long‐term impact of these new invaders is unknown. We suggest that herbicide application results in a net negative effect in the context of Fender's blue habitat restoration. That is, the costs to primary resources for Fender's blue and the influx of secondary invaders may be as problematic as the primary invasion by non‐native grasses.     

Identification of the mouse Loop‐tail gene: a model for human craniorachischisis?

Neural tube defects are one of the commonest human birth defects, with more than 0.5% of some populations affected. Mouse models are being used in an attempt to identify genes that could be involved in these malformations. Only two mouse mutations are known to lead to craniorachischisis, failure of closure of almost the entire neural tube. Two recent papers report that the gene for one of these, Loop-tail, has now been identified and sequenced.1, 2 It has been given the designation Ltap/Lpp1 and appears to function in floor plate formation. It will be of great interest to investigate the role of this gene in human neural tube defects.     

The challenges of conservation for declining migrants: are reserve‐based initiatives during the breeding season appropriate for the Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca?

Creating conservation policies for declining migrant species in response to global change presents a considerable challenge. Migrant species are affected by factors at breeding grounds, overwintering areas and during migration. Accordingly, reserve-based management during the breeding season is not always a suitable conservation strategy. Recent Pied Flycatcher population decline typifies the pattern for many migrants. The UK population has declined by 43% in the past decade, but explanations, and possible solutions, remain elusive. We use 15 years of data (1990–2004) from a declining British population to establish possible reasons for decline, considering: (1) breeding performance (including the influences of competition and predation); (2) weather patterns caused by the winter phase (December–March) of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), which modify conditions experienced at wintering grounds and on migration; and (3) possible impacts of climate change on spring temperatures. We conclude that decreasing breeding performance is contributing to decline, but that non-breeding factors are more important. Winter NAO index is a strong predictor of breeding population, probably because it influences food abundance in Africa and at migratory stopover points. Importantly, however, year itself enhances the predictive model, indicating that influences on population remain unaccounted for by current research. Management strategies based on increasing breeding productivity cannot fully address population decline because non-breeding factors appear important. However, as breeding performance is declining, breeding-based strategies remain useful conservation tools. To this end, our research indicates that optimal placement of nestboxes as regards orientation and habitat management to increase larval food supplies could increase productivity significantly.     

Separation of housing and care: more or less care? Consequences for health care services utilization by the elderly

The Dutch policy for the care of the elderly has been mainly characterised by the aim to improve the possibility for elderly people to live independently for as long as possible. One measure that has been taken to achieve this goal is the separation of the financing of care from the accommodation in which care is given. Recent discussions have brought to light some possible positive and negative effects of this separation on the use of care. It is, however, largely unknown to what extent there are differences concerning the nature and intensity of care and the type of caregivers provided to dwellers of houses where care and housing are separated (so-called 'life-time houses') and the elderly who live in homes for residential care and nursing homes. To gain insight in this matter an explorative study was conducted in Rotterdam of the use of several health facilities by matching 35 dwellers of 'life-time houses' on the criteria age, health needs and social status with 35 dwellers of residential care homes and nursing homes. On the basis of interviews, questionnaires and patient records data were collected and analysed on the nature and amount of help that has been given (per minute per week) and the kind of caregiver. The main finding is that the use pattern differs between the research groups. Dwellers of 'life-time houses' generally make more use of some care facilities and make more use of different types of care and caregivers. These differences however do not seem to be exclusively caused by the separation of housing and care.     

The 3-D model: Does time plasticity represent the influence of tableting speed?

The objective of this study is to test the hypothesis that time plasticity (parameterd from 3-D modeling) is influenced by tableting speed. Tablets were produced at different maximum relative densities (ϱ_rel,max) on an instrumented eccentric tableting machine and on a linear rotary tableting machine replicator. Some 3-D data plots were prepared using pressure, normalized time, and porosity according to Heckel. After fitting of a twisted plane, the resulting parameters were analyzed in a 3-D parameter plot. The materials used were dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DCPD), spray-dried lactose, microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), κ-carrageenan (CAR), and theophylline monohydrate (TheoM). The results show that tableting speed especially influences the parameterd (time plasticity) of the 3-D model for plastically and viscoelastically deforming materials such as MCC, HPMC, CAR, and TheoM. For more plastically deforming materials such as MCC, HPMC, and TheoM, a subtle influence on ω is also visible. The stages of higher densification are affected more than the stages of lower densification. Brittle materials such as DCPD exhibit no influence of tableting speed. The influence of speed on spray-dried lactose is minor. The results are valid for data obtained from an eccentric tableting machine and also for data from a linear rotary tableting machine replicator. Thus, the empirically derived parameter time plasticityd really represents the influence of time.     

Classifying the fire‐response traits of plants: How reliable are species‐level classifications?

Plant species in fire‐prone environments possess specific traits which allow them to survive fire. Species are commonly classified according to whether they survive fire and resprout or whether they are killed by fire and regenerate from seed. However, different populations of the same species have been shown to vary in their responses. Therefore, the classification of a species into a single category based on fire‐response traits may not necessarily be representative of every population under every circumstance. This study examined the extent of within‐species variation in fire‐response traits of woody plants in south‐eastern Australia after the 2003 fires. Species were then classified using two approaches: (i) using data from a field survey of fire‐response traits, taking into account within‐species variation; and (ii) using species' fire responses listed in a pre‐existing fire‐response database compiled from a variety of primary sources. Field data showed that the majority of species in the study area resprouted after fire with around one in 10 species variable in their resprouting response. Almost half of all species varied from site to site according to whether they regenerated from seed, either solely or in addition to resprouting. The numbers of species classified as resprouters and seed regenerators varied according to the classification method used. Differences were also found between the classification method when calculating the mean proportion of resprouters and seed regenerators across sites. The fire‐response traits for some species from the database were found to differ from the observed field responses. This study demonstrated that the application of a fire‐response trait, reported in a trait database, to an entire species, may not adequately represent the actual fire responses of the populations of interest. Rather than considering the fire‐response traits of a species, accurate prediction may be better achieved by considering how different populations of plants will respond to fire.     

Does menopausal transition really influence mental health? Findings from the prospective long‐term Zurich study

In the prospective long‐term Zurich study, we re‐examined the hypothesized association between mental health problems in women and the transition through menopausal stages. One hundred sixty‐eight women from a population‐based Swiss community cohort were prospectively followed up from age 21 to 50. At age 50, the occurrence of hot flushes/night sweats and sleep disturbances was significantly more frequent in peri‐ and post‐menopausal women. Irritability/nervousness was increased only in peri‐menopausal women, but that association was accounted for by neuroticism trait scores at age 30. Transitions to peri‐ or post‐menopause were not related to changes in either the prevalence rates of DSM major depressive episode or anxiety disorders, or the course of psychopathological syndromes as assessed by the Symptom Checklist 90 ‐ Revised. The null associations held when adjusting for duration of reproductive period or age at menopause. Preceding mental health problems between ages 21 and 41, increased neuroticism trait scores at age 30, and concurrent psychosocial distress were significantly related to mental health problems occurring between ages 41 and 50. Depending upon the cut‐off point that was chosen, the arbitrary dichotomization of a continuous depression outcome produced spurious associations with the menopausal transition. We conclude that mental health problems between ages 41 and 50 are probably not directly related to the menopausal transition, and that previously reported associations could be false positives due to inadequate dichotomizations, reporting bias, undisclosed multiple adjustments or overfitting.     

Baculovirus‐induced tree‐top disease: how extended is the role of egt as a gene for the extended phenotype?

Many parasites alter host behaviour to enhance their chance of transmission. Recently, the ecdysteroid UDP‐glucosyl transferase (egt) gene from the baculovirus Lymantria dispar multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (LdMNPV) was identified to induce tree‐top disease in L. dispar larvae. Infected gypsy moth larvae died at elevated positions (hence the term tree‐top disease), which is thought to promote dissemination of the virus to lower foliage. It is, however, unknown whether egt has a conserved role among baculoviruses in inducing tree‐top disease. Here, we studied tree‐top disease induced by the baculovirus Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) in two different host insects, Trichoplusia ni and Spodoptera exigua, and we investigated the role of the viral egt gene therein. AcMNPV induced tree‐top disease in both T. ni and S. exigua larvae, although in S. exigua a moulting‐dependent effect was seen. Those S. exigua larvae undergoing a larval moult during the infection process died at elevated positions, while larvae that did not moult after infection died at low positions. For both T. ni and S. exigua, infection with a mutant AcMNPV lacking egt did not change the position where the larvae died. We conclude that egt has no highly conserved role in inducing tree‐top disease in lepidopteran larvae. The conclusion that egt is a ‘gene for an extended phenotype’ is therefore not generally applicable for all baculovirus–host interactions. We hypothesize that in some baculovirus–host systems (including LdMNPV in L. dispar), an effect of egt on tree‐top disease can be observed through indirect effects of egt on moulting‐related climbing behaviour.