Do colours that deter birds affect cereal bait acceptance by possums (

Poisonous baits used for pest control in New Zealand commonly contain green dye and cinnamon oil to make them less attractive to birds. Research aimed at reducing the impact of poison based pest control on birds has shown that some birds are initially deterred from feeding on blue or, to a lesser extent, green coloured food and are attracted to yellow or red food. We determined whether colours that deter or attract birds affected the acceptance of non-toxic and toxic cereal baits by captive brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). Individual possums were offered, daily, a choice between a standard green dyed non-toxic cereal bait and either a blue dyed(17 possums) or yellow dyed non-toxic bait (16 possums) for 10 days. Following this, for the first group of 17 possums, 1080 toxin was added to either the green bait (9 possums) or blue bait (8 possums) and possums were offered the green versus blue choice again. Two additional groups that had not previously been fed cereal baits were also given a choice between blue and green baits, one of which was toxic. All possums offered non-toxic bait ate less on the first day of presentation than on subsequent days. There was no difference in acceptance of either blue or yellow coloured non-toxic bait compared to the standard green non- toxic bait on any days. Bait colour appeared to be unimportant in cereal bait choice and did not deter possums from eating any of the baits. The addition of toxin to baits did not significantly alter bait choice in any groups, although some individuals which had no previous experience with baits ate more toxic than non-toxic bait. These data suggest that adding a stronger bird deterring colour (i.e., blue) to poisonous baits is unlikely to adversely affect the acceptance of baits by possums.     

卷蛾分索赤眼蜂雌蜂的颜色偏好性

为了确定卷蛾分索赤眼蜂Trichogrammatoidea bactrae Nagaraja 雌蜂的颜色偏好性, 在室内通过在培养皿底部黏贴彩纸的方法测定卷蛾分索赤眼蜂雌蜂对红、 黄、 黑、 紫、 绿、 白、 蓝7种颜色的行为趋性反应。结果表明, 卷蛾分索赤眼蜂雌蜂在红、 黄、 紫、 绿和蓝5种颜色上的滞留时间都极显著地高于对照（P<0.01）, 在黑和白2种颜色上的滞留时间与对照没有显著差异（P>0.05）; 对黄色的首次选择率极显著高于对照(P< 0.01), 对红、 紫、 绿和蓝色的首次选择率均显著高于对照(P＜0.05), 对黑色和白色的首次选择率与对照没有显著差异。当雌蜂分别在黄与红、 紫、 绿和蓝两两颜色之间选择时, 雌蜂在黄色彩纸上的滞留时间显著长于其他4种颜色。当雌蜂对红、 紫、 绿、 蓝和黄色5种颜色一起选择时, 在首次选择率、 滞留次数上5种颜色间都没有明显差异(P＞0.05); 但在红色和蓝色上的滞留时间显著长于紫色(P＜0.05), 在这3种颜色上的滞留时间与在黄色和绿色上的滞留时间均无显著差异(P＞0.05)。卷蛾分索赤眼蜂雌蜂在7种颜色卵卡上分别与透明纸（对照）上的米蛾卵的选择寄生时, 在黄色卵卡上的寄生卵量极显著多于对照(P＜0.01), 黑色卵卡上的寄生卵量极显著少于对照(P＜0.01), 其他5种颜色的卵卡上的寄生卵量与对照没有显著差异(P＞0.05)。结果说明, 卷蛾分索赤眼蜂雌蜂对黄色最为偏好, 其次偏好红、 紫、 绿和蓝色, 较不喜好白色和黑色。     

红火蚁工蚁对颜色信号的选择与利用

为探明红火蚁Solenopsis invicta工蚁对颜色信号的选择与利用,本研究测定了不同颜色色卡对工蚁的趋向行为以及不同颜色饵料对工蚁觅食行为的影响,以期为红火蚁的高效监测与防控提供重要基础。结果表明颜色显著影响了红火蚁工蚁的趋向行为,黑色对工蚁的引诱率最高,可达32%;黄色对工蚁的引诱率最低,仅为7%。研究也发现不同颜色的饵料显著影响了红火蚁工蚁的觅食。在5 min时间内,工蚁在黄色、绿色以及蓝色饵料上觅食的数量最多,显著高于在紫色和黑色上饵料的觅食工蚁数;工蚁对红色、橙色、黄色、绿色、蓝色饵料的搬运量最大,显著高于紫色与黑色的饵料。综上,红火蚁工蚁可以识别与利用颜色信号,在制备红火蚁监测与防控饵剂时,可以考虑将饵剂染色红、橙、黄、绿、蓝等反射波长较长的颜色,以便工蚁能快速定位到饵剂并搬运更多的饵剂到蚁巢中。     

瓢虫的趋光性反应研究

以六斑月瓢虫Menochilus sexmaculata Fabricius和狭臀瓢虫Coccinella transversalis Fabricius为例,研究了瓢虫对不同光质(波长)的趋光性反应。在室内分别测定了六斑月瓢虫和狭臀瓢虫对5种发光二极管(LED)光波的趋性,以及在田间挂板(佳多)测定了瓢虫对色板的选择趋性。室内测定结果表明,瓢虫对黄色和白色LED光波的选择趋性显著高于与其它颜色;田间挂板试验表明,黄色对瓢虫的诱杀作用最强。综合分析,黄色对瓢虫有强烈的吸引作用,建议在使用黄板进行田间监测和防治时应考虑对天敌瓢虫的诱杀作用。     

青斑蝶Tirumala limniace成虫颜色偏好性研究

【目的】明确青斑蝶Tirumala limniace雌、雄成虫对颜色的偏好性,可以为此蝴蝶人工饲养时的合理环境条件设定提供必要的理论支持。【方法】本研究通过在室内和野外对青斑蝶成虫对6种颜色(白色、红色、绿色、黄色、蓝色和紫色)光源的选择行为进行观察,明确青斑蝶成虫对不同颜色的偏好性。【结果】(1)在室内和在野外雌、雄成虫均优先选择黄色。(2)雌雄成虫在野外无其它光源干扰下对黄色的选择性强于室内。(3)单色光源照明和多种不同颜色光源同时存在下,成虫对颜色的偏好程度存在差异:当只有单色光源照明时,成虫对颜色的偏好程度为黄色>绿色=红色≥蓝色≥紫色;当不同颜色光源同时存在时,成虫对颜色的偏好程度则为黄色>蓝色≥绿色=红色≥紫色。(4)在不同颜色光源同时存在时,配对后的雌成虫表现出了比雄成虫更强的颜色选择性:雌成虫对黄色光源的选择性强于雄成虫,且其未产生颜色选择的成虫数量也少于雄成虫。【结论】青斑蝶成虫存在对黄色选择的颜色恒常性,野外成虫对颜色的选择性强于室内,雌、雄成虫对偏好颜色选择性存在性别差异。     

光强与光质对银杏光合作用及黄酮苷与萜类内酯含量的影响

对2年生银杏（Ginkgo biloba L.)苗进行遮荫和光膜处理,测定光合速率及碳水化合物,银杏黄酮苷与萜类内酯的含量。光合速率在自然光下测定时从大到小依次为：黄膜＞蓝膜和红膜＞绿膜＞紫膜和白膜,在光膜下测定时为：黄膜＞红膜＞蓝膜、紫膜和白膜＞绿膜。光强和光质对碳水化合物含量有显著影响。光质对萜类内酯的生物合成和积累有影响,紫膜处理的银杏萜类内酯含量最高,为3.89mg/g,比白膜（对照） 高85．23％,其次是绿膜,为2．80mg/g。覆膜和蔗荫显著减少银杏黄酮苷含量,这可能与紫外辐射强度减弱有关。     

Learning and discrimination of colored papers in jumping spiders (Araneae, Salticidae)

Color discrimination in jumping spiders Hasarius adansoni was examined by heat-avoidance learning in association with colored papers. The arena for the experiment was divided into two halves by a pair of colored papers. The colored papers used in this study were blue, green, yellow, red, white, gray and black. In training sessions, one half of the arena was heated from the bottom by a hot plate, and freely walking spiders were individually trained to avoid the heated half. In subsequent memory tests without heat, they consistently avoided the heat-associated colored papers. We found that jumping spiders could learn blue-green, blue-yellow, blue-red, blue-gray, green-yellow, green-red, green-gray, yellow-red, yellow-gray and red-gray patterns. Moreover, spiders trained with a blue-white pattern, a green-white pattern, a yellow-white pattern or a red-white pattern could discriminate the blue, green, yellow or red from black. It seems that jumping spiders can discriminate the blue, green, yellow and red papers by their hue, although brightness may also be used together with the color cue to discriminate colored papers.     

不同光质对辣椒叶色黄化突变体光合生理特性的影响研究

以辣椒叶色黄化突变体yl1及其野生型6421为试材,用白光、蓝光、红光、绿光、紫光、黄光和远红光不同光质进行处理,考察其表型、生理及光合特性的变化特征,探究光质对黄叶辣椒植株生长发育的影响。结果显示：(1)蓝光与红光对辣椒幼苗的生长有促进作用,黄光和远红光则会显著抑制幼苗生长,6421生长受不同光质的抑制影响比yl1更大。(2)两个辣椒材料光合色素含量在不同光质下均不同程度降低;6421叶绿素总含量和类胡萝卜素含量在不同光质下均高于yl1,yl1和6421叶片的光合色素含量分别在紫光和黄光下最低。(3)蓝光和绿光能显著提高yl1的净光合速率(P_n),而不同光质处理均显著降低了6421的P_n。(4)紫光处理使yl1的PSⅡ潜在活性(F_v/F_o)和最大光化学效率(F_v/F_m)值均显著降低且显著低于6421,但升高了光化学猝灭系数(qP)和非光化学猝灭系数(NPQ)。(5)蓝光、红光和绿光均能提高辣椒的超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化物酶(POD)和过氧化氢酶(...     

Response of Trichogramma egg parasitoids to colored sticky traps

The response of Trichogramma spp. egg parasitoids to colored sticky traps was evaluated in the field during two seasons (1995/1996, 1996/1997). Traps consisted of a glass tube coated with Bird-Tanglefoot® into which colored paper was inserted or clear traps without paper. Colors tested were white, green, blue, yellow and red in the first season and white, green, yellow and black in the second season. The proportion of both female and male parasitoids caught on the sticky traps was significantly different among colors, indicating that the parasitoids actively move between plants and are not solely carried along passively by wind. White was the color most preferred by female parasitoids, followed by clear and green traps. Yellow was preferred over black but was less attractive than green. Visual cues may be used by Trichogramma spp. during the habitat location process. The color preference of male Trichogramma spp. differed significantly from females with yellow and green being more attractive than white. For all colors, more female Trichogramma spp. were caught on the sticky traps (>85% of all wasps caught), indicating a lower activity level and/or shorter lifespan for males. The use of white cylindrical sticky traps for monitoring Trichogramma spp. populations in the field is recommended.     

A bait formulated with Metarhizium anisopliae for the control of Musca domestica L. (Dipt., Muscidae) assessed in large-scale laboratory enclosures

The entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae was formulated into a bait for assessment against Musca domestica (housefly). Its efficacy was tested by placing either one, two or four baits on the floor of a 10 m³ polythene cubicle and releasing 100 female and 50 male M. domestica. One, two or four baits had equal effects and, between 95.2 and 100% of flies were killed after 10 days. In a second experiment, the durations of visits by single or pairs of flies to the baits and subsequent pick-up of conidia were recorded. Single flies remained in the baits for up to 33 min and picked up a mean of 38 235 ± 8291 conidia. When pairs of flies were exposed, the individuals picked up a mean of 95 879 ± 23 838 conidia, which was significantly more (P < 0.05) than the single flies, although the mean duration of the visits was not significantly different (P > 0.05). However, the numbers of conidia picked up by the flies did not correlate with the duration of the visit. Lastly, 25 female and 25 male flies were exposed in 0.027 m³ arenas, to 10 M. anisopliae- killed houseflies, showing sporulating hyphae. After 8 days, 97.3% of female flies and 100% of male houseflies had succumbed to infection with M. anisopliae. The implications of these observations are discussed.     

Effects of different LED sources on the growth and nitrogen metabolism of lettuce

Using a light-emitting diode (LED) as the light source, the effects of eight different light treatments [white light (control, W), purple light (P), blue light (B), red light (R), green light (G), yellow light (Y), red–blue light in a 9:1 ratio (9R/1B), and red–blue light in a 4:1 ratio (4R/1B)] on the growth, quality and nitrogen metabolism of lettuce were studied. The results showed that compared with the white light, the purple light, blue light, red light, and the red-blue light combination could all increase the biomass of the aboveground part of lettuce to various degrees, while green light and yellow light inhibited lettuce growth. Under blue light, the contents of soluble protein and flavonoid in lettuce were the highest; under red light, the soluble sugar content was the highest, while the contents of soluble protein, free amino acids, and vitamin C (VC) were relatively higher under the 4R/1B light condition. Compared with white light, the sources of purple, blue, and red lights as well as the red–blue light combination all significantly reduced nitrate accumulation in lettuce, and the activities of the nitrogen (N) metabolism-related enzymes such as nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, glutamine synthetase, glutamate synthase, and glutamate dehydrogenase were increased to varying degrees. In contrast, the contents of nitrate and ammonium N were significantly accumulated in lettuce under green light, and the activities of relative enzymes were significantly reduced. Therefore, the purple light, blue light, and red–blue combination light sources could promote N assimilation and improve the aboveground biomass accumulation in lettuce by improving the activity of the N metabolism-related enzymes in lettuce. Particularly under the 4R/1B light source, the biomass, soluble protein, VC, and total amino acid content were rather high in lettuce, which indicated that the 4R/1B light source could better effectively improve the nutritional quality and promote the growth of lettuce, while yellow light and green light are not suitable to serve as direct sources in a plant factory. These results provide a certain theoretical basis for the regulation of the light environment in cultivation facilities.     

ACCLIMATION OF THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC APPARATUS OF PALMARIA PALMATA (RHODOPHYTA) TO LIGHT QUALITIES THAT PREFERENTIALLY EXCITE PHOTOSYSTEM I OR PHOTOSYSTEM II1

Acclimation of the photosynthetic apparatus to light absorbed primarily by phycobilisomes (which transfer energy predominantly to photosystem II) or absorbed by chlorophyll a (mainly present in the antenna of photosystem I) was studied in the macroalga Palmaria palmata L. In addition, the influence of blue and yellow light, exciting chlorophyll a and phycobilisomes, respectively, ivas investigated. All results were compared to a white light control. Complementary chromatic adaptation in terms of an enhanced ratio of phycoerythrin to phycocyanin under green light conditions was observed. Red light (mainly absorbed by chlorophyll a) and green light (mainly absorbed by phycobilisomes) caused an increase of the antenna system, which was not preferentially excited. Yellow and blue light led to intermediate states comparable to each other and white light. Growth was reduced under all light qualities in comparison to white light, especially under conditions preferably exciting phycobilisomes (green light-adapted algae had a 58% lower growth rate compared to white light-adapted algae). Red and blue light-adapted algae showed maximal photosynthetic capacity with white light excitation and significantly lower values with green light excitation. In contrast, green and yellow light-adapted algae exhibited comparable photosynthetic capacities at all excitation wavelengths. Low-temperature fluorescence emission analysis showed an increase of photosystem II emission in red light-adapted algae and a decrease in green light-adapted algae. A small increase of photosystem I emission teas also found in green light-adapted algae, but this was much less than the photosystem II emission increase observed in red light-adapted algae (both compared to phycobilisome emission). Efficiency of energy transfer from phycobilisomes to photosystem II was higher in red than in green light-adapted algae. The opposite was found for the energy transfer efficiency from phycobilisomes to photosystem I. Zeaxanthin content increased in green and blue light-adapted algae compared to red, white, and yellow light-adapted algae. Results are discussed in comparison to published data on unicellular red algae and cyanobacteria.     

Attraction of fruit flies of the genus Bactrocera to colored mimics of host fruit

In tests on feral populations of polyphagous Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) adults on host guava trees, both sexes were significantly more attracted to Tangletrap‐coated 50 mm diameter spheres colored blue or white than to similar spheres colored red, orange, yellow, green, or black or to Tangletrap‐coated 50 mm diameter yellow‐green guava fruit. In contrast, in tests on feral populations of oligophagous Bactrocera cacuminata (Hering) on host wild tobacco plants, both sexes were significantly more attracted to Tangletrap‐coated 15 mm diameter spheres colored orange or yellow than to other colors of spheres or to Tangletrap‐coated 15 mm diameter green wild tobacco fruit. Both sexes of both tephritid species were significantly more attracted to blue (in the case of B. tryoni) or orange (in the case of B. cacuminata) 50 mm spheres displayed singly than to blue or orange 15 mm spheres displayed in clusters, even though fruit of wild tobacco plants are borne in clusters. Finally, B. tryoni adults were significantly less attracted to non‐ultraviolet reflecting bluish fruit‐mimicking spheres than to bluish fruit‐mimicking spheres having a slightly enhanced level of ultraviolet reflectance, similar to the reflectance of possible native host fruit of B. tryoni, whose bluish skin color is overlayed with ultraviolet‐reflecting waxy bloom. Responses to fruit visual stimuli found here are discussed relative to responses found in other tephritid species.     

Color discrimination in wild boars

Two experiments were carried out in order to clarify the color perception of Japanese wild boarsSus scrofa leucomystax. Two females were trained using an operant conditioning technique to press a switch under a positive stimulus color card in order to receive food as a reward. In Exp. 1, they were tested for discrimination between 3 colors (red, green and blue) and gray. The luminosity of all colors was the same. The wild boars succeeded in discrimination tests between blue and gray, but failed to discriminate red from gray. They also did not discriminate green from gray so clearly as blue from gray. In Exp. 2, the same wild boars were tested to discriminate between 8 kinds of color, which were created by gradating green yellow into red purple except for the 3 colors used in Exp. 1, and gray. They could clearly discriminate blue, purple blue and a part of purple from gray. In these experiments, wild boars were capable of recognizing bluish colors. However, for colors approaching green or yellow, they failed the test by degrees.     

Selection of carrion by the Australasian harrier (Circus approximate) in New Zealand

Abstract

The selection of carrion by Australasian harriers was studied by offering a choice of baits in the field. These trials tested preferences for carrion species, amount of flesh exposed, body posture, and colour of the carrion. Domestic hen pullets and Norway rats were chosen significantly more often than rabbits, opossums, or eels. Skinned rabbits were preferred to unskinned ones. Body posture of rabbit carcasses did not appear to affect a harrier's choice. White and blue baits were preferred to red, brown, or green baits. The most important factors involved in the selection of carrion by harriers appear to be the ease of handling of the carrion, and the colour of the bait.     

不同色板对柑橘园蓟马的诱集效果及蓝板的诱捕效果

通过对黄色、蓝色、深蓝色、白色、红色、绿色、紫色、灰色、黑色和粉红色10种不同颜色色板对柑橘园蓟马的诱集效果的比较试验表明,柑橘园蓟马对蓝色和深蓝色色板趋性最大,与其它8种颜色色板之间有着极显著差异(P<0.01)。蓝色色板对蓟马在东南西北4个不同方位中的诱捕作用研究表明,南面方位诱集的蓟马数量最多,与西、北两个方位之间有着显著差异(P<0.05)。当平均株高为220cm时,挂板高度分别为60、120、180和240cm,高度为120cm时诱集的蓟马数量最多,与其它3个高度之间存在显著差异。色板间距分别为2、3、4和5m时,结果表明间距为4m和5m时每板诱集的蓟马数量较多,与其它间距之间有着显著差异。从上午8点到下午6点每间隔2h的5个时间段中,各时间段之间没有显著差异。在蓝色色板的小区防治试验中,在挂板3、6和12d后,诱捕效果分别达到41.5%,53.9%和37.7%。     

光质对温室甜椒干物质生产和分配指数的影响

为了研究不同光质对甜椒植株干物质生产与分配指数的影响,以甜椒茎有限生长品种"苏椒13号"为试验材料,于2010年计不同种彩色塑料薄膜(红、黄、蓝、绿、紫,白色为对照)试验。结果表明:不同光质处理的甜椒单位面积干物质生产量(Wt)与冠层截获的太阳光合有效辐射日积分(daily photosynthetic active radiation integral,PARi,MJ·m-2)之间的模型为Wt=22.07×e0.0054λPARi;单位面积植株总干重、果实的干物质分配指数、果实采收指数和单位面积果实产量均以红膜最高,紫膜最低;蓝膜的茎干物质分配指数最高,红膜最低;蓝膜、绿膜和紫膜的植株叶片干物质分配指数明显高于红膜和黄膜;不同光质处理对甜椒植株地上部分干物质分配指数的影响差异不显著;研究认为红膜和黄膜能够促进甜椒植株的干物质积累和果实发育,紫膜和蓝膜则有明显的抑制作用,该研究结果可为温室甜椒栽培的光质选择和环境调控提供决策依据。     

Visual Responses of Adult Asian Citrus Psyllid (Hemiptera: Liviidae) to Colored Sticky Traps on Citrus Trees

The effects of five differently-colored sticky traps in capturing adult Diaphorina citri were evaluated in citrus orchards. Trap catches of D. citri were monitored fortnightly on blue, green, red, white and yellow sticky cards placed on three citrus varieties during D. citri active flight period from April to July in south Texas. Evaluation of mean trap catches of each color by repeated measures analysis of variance produced three separate groups: yellow traps caught significantly more D. citri adults than the other four traps; red and green traps caught significantly more D. citri than blue and white traps, which were not significantly different. Although the number of adult psyllid captured on all trap types significantly increased with time during the trapping period, the performance of traps did not change with time. Trap catches were also significantly influenced by the citrus species; traps placed on lemon trees captured more D. citri than those placed on sweet orange and grapefruit, suggesting that plant preference exhibited by D. citri may influence the performance of traps. The ratio of trap reflectance between the 680 to 700 nm and the 450 nm was significantly correlated with total trap catches in all host species studied. Thus, this index was a good indicator of the attractiveness of adult D. citri to colored traps. Additionally, we compared the reflectance values of young versus mature flush shoots of the three host plants used in this study as related to densities of D. citri recorded in colored traps. We discussed the importance of visual cues in the host finding behavior of adult D. citri.     

Green Preference Enhances the Attractiveness of and Promotes Feeding on NaCl Resource in the Yellow-spined Bamboo Locust, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ceracris kiangsu</Emphasis>

C. kiangsu is a serious defoliator of bamboos in China. Insecticide spraying has been widely practiced, but it is neither convenient nor economic. Some acceptable and cost effective management methods must be developed. The adults are known to aggregate and gnaw at human urine-contaminated materials and NaCl was a strong phagostimulant. Because in nature the adults may use cues to locate NaCl resources, here we test the influences of green and yellow on NaCl resource foraging and consumption. A blend of lemon yellow and brilliant blue pigment (LYBB) and a lemon yellow pigment (LYP) were used to tint white filter papers and foam plastic containers, and the resulting papers and containers appeared green and yellow to the human eyes. In the laboratory, the adults preferred to stay on LYBB- or LYP-tinted filter papers rather than white ones, but showed no preference for LYBB- over LYP-tinted ones in a two-choice test. When the adults were simultaneously offered 3% NaCl aqueous solution-treated LYBB-tinted and white filter papers, they consumed significantly more LYBB-tinted ones in the laboratory and in bamboo forest. Moreover, LYBB-tinted containers including NaCl and bisultap solution (NaCl bait) attracted and killed more adults both in the laboratory and bamboo forest than white ones. Hence, green preference enhances the attractiveness of and promotes feeding on NaCl resource in C. kiangsu adults, and green NaCl bait might have potential application in monitoring and population management system.     

The efficacy of entomopathogenic nematodes for controlling housefly infestations of intensive pig units

The efficacy of the entomopathogenic nematodes Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis megidis after formulation into a housefly bait was compared with a commercial bait formulation of methomyl for the control of houseflies in a U.K. pig farm. The housefly infestation was confined to the farrowing unit, which consisted of ten farrowing houses, where two adjacent houses were sequentially re-stocked with pregnant sows at weekly intervals. Shortly after re-stocking, one house was baited with one of the nematode species and the other with methomyl. Significantly fewer flies ( P < 0.05) were counted in the houses baited with either S. feltiae or H. megidis than those baited with methomyl. The efficacy of S. feltiae sprayed on to the manure was also compared with methomyl bait. Counts of houseflies carried out in the farrowing cycle before this treatment were not significantly different ( P > 0.05); however, significantly fewer flies ( P < 0.05) occurred after S. feltiae was sprayed. The efficacy of encapsulated S. feltiae was also compared with methomyl bait and no significant difference was observed ( P > 0.05).