Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of furniture and bioenergy production from oil palm trunks

The palm oil industry constantly attempts to increase the sustainability along the entire palm oil value chain. One important strategy is to utilize all co‐products. Oil palm trunks, which become available upon replanting of existing plantations, represent an important and increasing flow of underexploited biomass. In recent years, innovative technologies are emerging to use them for producing furniture or plywood or providing bioenergy. We assessed the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of such products and the greenhouse gas emission savings due to replaced alternative products. Although challenging material properties result in a relatively high energy demand and related greenhouse gas emissions in the oil palm wood processing, substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions can arise from producing furniture or bioenergy from oil palm trunks, especially if the process energy demand is met by the energy recovery from oil palm wood‐processing residues.     

Integrated algal engineering for bioenergy generation,effluent remediation,and production of high-value bioactive compounds

Increased demand for energy worldwide has resulted in increasing interest in alternative renewable sources of biofuels. Demand for improved systems of bioenergy generation, environmental remediation, and coproduction of high value bioactive compounds has led to the potential use of algae in biomass utilization. In Malaysia, palm oil industries generate high amount of solid wastes. Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) is estimated to be three times of the amount of crude palm oil produced. POME is a heavily polluting wastewater due to its high chemical oxygen demand (COD), high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and high contents of minerals such as nitrogen and phosphorus that can cause severe pollution to the environment and water resources. A combination of wastewater treatment and renewable bioenergy co-generation with recovery of high-value biochemicals would benefit the palm oil industry.     

Feasibility Study of Performing an Life Cycle Assessment on Crude Palm Oil Production in Malaysia (9 pp)

Background, Goal and Scope The palm oil industry is one of the leading industries in Malaysia. With a yearly production of more than 13 million tons of crude palm oil (CPO) and plantations covering 11% of the Malaysian land area it is an industry to be reckoned with, also when it comes to environmental impacts. One way to describe and present the environmental impacts is through a life cycle assessment, LCA. This assessment aims to introduce the concept of LCA and perform a screening LCA on crude palm oil production in Malaysia including the stages of plantation, transport and milling. The assessment is largely based on general data and is thus meant to function as an indication of the environmental threads posed by CPO production and as a guideline to CPO producers and local universities on how to perform an LCA on a palm oil scenario. Due to the general data background the results of this report should not be quoted directly for decision making. The Functional Unit, to which all masses and emissions in this assessment have been adjusted, is the production of 1000 kg of CPO in Malaysia. Method Initially an overview of palm oil production was obtained and the outlines and borders of the assessment were determined along with the specific goal and scope of the assessment. The data for the assessment was collected from three different sources: - 1. Earlier studies and statistics on palm oil production in Malaysia - 2. Studies on similar processes, when palm oil related processes were not available - 3. General data from the SimaPro 5 database - The European Eco-Indicator 99 method and European databases included in the LCA software SimaPro 5 have been used for the impact calculations. Results and Discussion The impact processes related to the plantation are the on-site energy use (mainly diesel) and the production of artificial fertilizer. Pesticide use contributes a minor impact due to widely used integrated biological poet management. For transportation the only impact is from combustion of diesel and at the mill the boiler is the sole significant contributor – positively through electricity production and negatively by emissions from the boiler. Impacts from POME (Palm Oil Mill Effluent) are not dealt with in the main assessment, but touched upon in alternative scenarios. The results clearly show that fertilizer production is the most polluting process in the system followed by transportation and the boiler emissions at a tie. The most significant impacts from the system are respiratory inorganics and depletion of fossil fuels, of which the boiler emission is the main responsible for the prior and fertilizer production and transportation are responsible for the latter. It is also evident from the results that crude palm oil production is a significant environmental impact generator in Malaysia due to the vast production quantities. Alternative scenarios revealed that there are significant impact savings to be made by introduction of environmental investments, both regarding the overall impacts and in particularly regarding CO2 emissions. Conclusion A screening LCA was successfully conducted on the Malaysian crude palm oil production thus promising potentials for the palm oil industry to conduct their own inventories and assessments using specific company data. Crude palm oil production in Malaysia is responsible for app. 3.5% of the total environmental impacts in the country and must thus be given attention to reduce impacts. Alternatives such as optimized use of organic fertilizer, environmentally friendlier artificial fertilizer production, rail transport, approved filters at the mill boiler stack and biogas harvest from POME digestion must thus be promoted in the industry. Recommendation . The Malaysian palm oil industry should take steps towards introducing LCA. Exhaustive inventories are likely to open the eyes of many companies towards implementing environmental investments and improve the international competitiveness. In order to retrieve results with a greater accuracy in the future, databases must be created containing life cycle data from Malaysian scenarios and normalization and weighting factors must be designed to reflect Malaysian conditions. The Malaysian authorities must create incentives through increased tariffs on electricity and diesel and/or financial support for cleaner technology investments.     

Soil carbon balance following conversion of grassland to oil palm

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) crops are expanding rapidly in the tropics, with implications for the global carbon cycle. Little is currently known about soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics following conversion to oil palm and virtually nothing for conversion of grassland. We measured changes in SOC stocks following conversion of tropical grassland to oil palm plantations in Papua New Guinea using a chronosequence of plantations planted over a 25‐year period. We further used carbon isotopes to quantify the loss of grassland‐derived and gain in oil palm‐derived SOC over this period. The grassland and oil palm soils had average SOC stocks of 10.7 and 12.0 kg m^?2, respectively, across all the study sites, to a depth of 1.5 m. In the 0–0.05 m depth interval, 0.79 kg m^?2 of SOC was gained from oil palm inputs over 25 years and approximately the same amount of the original grass‐derived SOC was lost. For the whole soil profile (0–1.5 m), 3.4 kg m^?2 of SOC was gained from oil palm inputs with no significant losses of grass‐derived SOC. The grass‐derived SOC stocks were more resistant to decrease than SOC reported in other studies. Black carbon produced in grassfires could partially but not fully account for the persistence of the original SOC stocks. Oil palm‐derived SOC accumulated more slowly where soil nitrogen contents where high. Forest soils in the same region had smaller carbon stocks than the grasslands. In the majority of cases, conversion of grassland to oil palm plantations in this region resulted in net sequestration of soil organic carbon.     

Migratory bird community structure in oil palm (Elaies guineensis) plantations and native forest fragments in southern Mexico

Oil palm (Elaies guineensis) plantations are among the fastest growing agroecosystems in the Neotropics, but little is known about how Neotropical birds use oil palm habitats. To better understand the potential value of oil palm as an overwintering habitat for migratory birds, we surveyed birds in oil palm and native forest remnants in Tabasco, Mexico, from 19 December 2017 to 27 March 2018. We collected data on bird abundance and vegetative structure and used generalized linear models and multivariate analysis to assess how oil palm development influenced migrant bird diversity, community assemblages, and abundance. We found that species richness of migratory birds tended to be higher in forest patches than in oil palm, that community assemblages of migratory birds differed between native forest and oil palm plantations, and that differences in migratory bird abundance, and subsequent changes in community assemblages were driven by differences between native forest and oil palm plantations in vegetative structure. The bird community of native forest was characterized by migrant species sensitive to forest loss that forage low in the understory and in the leaf litter, whereas the bird community of oil palm plantations was represented by generalist species that occupy a wider range of foraging niches. Our results suggest that most species of migrant birds responded positively to several forest structural features and that integrating more native trees and increasing the amount of understory vegetation in oil palm plantations may increase the value of working landscapes for migratory birds.     

A review of the ecosystem functions in oil palm plantations,using forests as a reference system

Oil palm plantations have expanded rapidly in recent decades. This large‐scale land‐use change has had great ecological, economic, and social impacts on both the areas converted to oil palm and their surroundings. However, research on the impacts of oil palm cultivation is scattered and patchy, and no clear overview exists. We address this gap through a systematic and comprehensive literature review of all ecosystem functions in oil palm plantations, including several (genetic, medicinal and ornamental resources, information functions) not included in previous systematic reviews. We compare ecosystem functions in oil palm plantations to those in forests, as the conversion of forest to oil palm is prevalent in the tropics. We find that oil palm plantations generally have reduced ecosystem functioning compared to forests: 11 out of 14 ecosystem functions show a net decrease in level of function. Some functions show decreases with potentially irreversible global impacts (e.g. reductions in gas and climate regulation, habitat and nursery functions, genetic resources, medicinal resources, and information functions). The most serious impacts occur when forest is cleared to establish new plantations, and immediately afterwards, especially on peat soils. To variable degrees, specific plantation management measures can prevent or reduce losses of some ecosystem functions (e.g. avoid illegal land clearing via fire, avoid draining of peat, use of integrated pest management, use of cover crops, mulch, and compost) and we highlight synergistic mitigation measures that can improve multiple ecosystem functions simultaneously. The only ecosystem function which increases in oil palm plantations is, unsurprisingly, the production of marketable goods. Our review highlights numerous research gaps. In particular, there are significant gaps with respect to socio‐cultural information functions. Further, there is a need for more empirical data on the importance of spatial and temporal scales, such as differences among plantations in different environments, of different sizes, and of different ages, as our review has identified examples where ecosystem functions vary spatially and temporally. Finally, more research is needed on developing management practices that can offset the losses of ecosystem functions. Our findings should stimulate research to address the identified gaps, and provide a foundation for more systematic research and discussion on ways to minimize the negative impacts and maximize the positive impacts of oil palm cultivation.     

The impact of tropical forest logging and oil palm agriculture on the soil microbiome

Selective logging and forest conversion to oil palm agriculture are rapidly altering tropical forests. However, functional responses of the soil microbiome to these land‐use changes are poorly understood. Using 16S rRNA gene and shotgun metagenomic sequencing, we compared composition and functional attributes of soil biota between unlogged, once‐logged and twice‐logged rainforest, and areas converted to oil palm plantations in Sabah, Borneo. Although there was no significant effect of logging history, we found a significant difference between the taxonomic and functional composition of both primary and logged forests and oil palm. Oil palm had greater abundances of genes associated with DNA, RNA, protein metabolism and other core metabolic functions, but conversely, lower abundance of genes associated with secondary metabolism and cell–cell interactions, indicating less importance of antagonism or mutualism in the more oligotrophic oil palm environment. Overall, these results show a striking difference in taxonomic composition and functional gene diversity of soil microorganisms between oil palm and forest, but no significant difference between primary forest and forest areas with differing logging history. This reinforces the view that logged forest retains most features and functions of the original soil community. However, networks based on strong correlations between taxonomy and functions showed that network complexity is unexpectedly increased due to both logging and oil palm agriculture, which suggests a pervasive effect of both land‐use changes on the interaction of soil microbes.     

Quantifying above‐ and belowground biomass carbon loss with forest conversion in tropical lowlands of Sumatra (Indonesia)

Natural forests in South‐East Asia have been extensively converted into other land‐use systems in the past decades and still show high deforestation rates. Historically, lowland forests have been converted into rubber forests, but more recently, the dominant conversion is into oil palm plantations. While it is expected that the large‐scale conversion has strong effects on the carbon cycle, detailed studies quantifying carbon pools and total net primary production (NPP_total) in above‐ and belowground tree biomass in land‐use systems replacing rainforest (incl. oil palm plantations) are rare so far. We measured above‐ and belowground carbon pools in tree biomass together with NPP_total in natural old‐growth forests, ‘jungle rubber’ agroforests under natural tree cover, and rubber and oil palm monocultures in Sumatra. In total, 32 stands (eight plot replicates per land‐use system) were studied in two different regions. Total tree biomass in the natural forest (mean: 384 Mg ha^?1) was more than two times higher than in jungle rubber stands (147 Mg ha^?1) and >four times higher than in monoculture rubber and oil palm plantations (78 and 50 Mg ha^?1). NPP_total was higher in the natural forest (24 Mg ha^?1 yr^?1) than in the rubber systems (20 and 15 Mg ha^?1 yr^?1), but was highest in the oil palm system (33 Mg ha^?1 yr^?1) due to very high fruit production (15–20 Mg ha^?1 yr^?1). NPP_total was dominated in all systems by aboveground production, but belowground productivity was significantly higher in the natural forest and jungle rubber than in plantations. We conclude that conversion of natural lowland forest into different agricultural systems leads to a strong reduction not only in the biomass carbon pool (up to 166 Mg C ha^?1) but also in carbon sequestration as carbon residence time (i.e. biomass‐C:NPP‐C) was 3–10 times higher in the natural forest than in rubber and oil palm plantations.     

Soil carbon stocks and changes after oil palm introduction in the Brazilian Amazon

As oil palm has been considered one of the most favorable oilseeds for biodiesel production in Brazil, it is important to understand how cultivation of this perennial crop will affect the dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) in the long term. The aim of this study was to evaluate the changes in soil C stocks after the conversion of forest and pasture into oil palm production in the Amazon Region. Soil samples were collected in March 2008 and September 2009 in five areas: native forest (NARF), pasture cultivated for 55 years (PAST), and oil palm cultivated for 4 (OP‐4), 8 (OP‐8) and 25 years (OP‐25), respectively. Soils were sampled in March 2008 to evaluate the spatial variability of SOC and nitrogen (N) contents in relation to the spacing between trees. In September 2009, soils were sampled to evaluate the soil C stocks in the avenues (inter rows) and frond piles, and to compare the total C stocks with natural forest and pasture system. Soil C contents were 22–38% higher in the area nearest the oil palm base (0.6 m) than the average across the inter row (0–4.5 m from the tree), indicating that the increment in soil organic matter (SOM) must have been largely derived from root material. The soil C stocks under palm frond piles were 9–26% higher than in the inter rows, due to inputs of SOM by pruned palm fronds. The soil carbon stocks in oil palm areas, after adjustments for differences in bulk density and clay content across treatments, were 35–46% lower than pasture soil C stocks, but were 0–18% higher than the native forest soil C content. The results found here may be used to improve the life cycle assessment of biodiesel derived from palm oil.     

Carbon outcomes of major land‐cover transitions in SE Asia: great uncertainties and REDD+ policy implications

Policy makers across the tropics propose that carbon finance could provide incentives for forest frontier communities to transition away from swidden agriculture (slash‐and‐burn or shifting cultivation) to other systems that potentially reduce emissions and/or increase carbon sequestration. However, there is little certainty regarding the carbon outcomes of many key land‐use transitions at the center of current policy debates. Our meta‐analysis of over 250 studies reporting above‐ and below‐ground carbon estimates for different land‐use types indicates great uncertainty in the net total ecosystem carbon changes that can be expected from many transitions, including the replacement of various types of swidden agriculture with oil palm, rubber, or some other types of agroforestry systems. These transitions are underway throughout Southeast Asia, and are at the heart of REDD+ debates. Exceptions of unambiguous carbon outcomes are the abandonment of any type of agriculture to allow forest regeneration (a certain positive carbon outcome) and expansion of agriculture into mature forest (a certain negative carbon outcome). With respect to swiddening, our meta‐analysis supports a reassessment of policies that encourage land‐cover conversion away from these [especially long‐fallow] systems to other more cash‐crop‐oriented systems producing ambiguous carbon stock changes – including oil palm and rubber. In some instances, lengthening fallow periods of an existing swidden system may produce substantial carbon benefits, as would conversion from intensely cultivated lands to high‐biomass plantations and some other types of agroforestry. More field studies are needed to provide better data of above‐ and below‐ground carbon stocks before informed recommendations or policy decisions can be made regarding which land‐use regimes optimize or increase carbon sequestration. As some transitions may negatively impact other ecosystem services, food security, and local livelihoods, the entire carbon and noncarbon benefit stream should also be taken into account before prescribing transitions with ambiguous carbon benefits.     

中国如何突破生物柴油产业的原料瓶颈

因应我国日益严峻的能源资源、能源环境和能源安全形势,国家大力倡导发展可再生能源。生物柴油是最重要的液体可再生燃料之一,在能源性质方面可以完全替代化石柴油,而且还具有安全环保等其它优良特性。当前利用动植物油脂生产生物柴油,原料成本偏高,而且稳定、充足的油脂原料供应体系尚未形成。我国是油脂资源短缺国家,近年来植物油进口量逐年增加。同时,我国耕地资源匮乏,粮食供应形势不容乐观,扩大油料作物种植的潜力非常有限。但是,我国宜林地丰富,农林废弃生物质资源量巨大。综合以上因素,我国应重点发展木本油料植物规模化种植和推广,加快微生物油脂发酵技术创新和产业化进程;同时,利用植物遗传育种技术提高油料作物产量以及选择性发展不与粮争地的油料作物。依靠各方面的进步,发展创新的油脂生产技术,保障我国生物柴油产业和油脂化工行业健康发展。     

Growth of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) seedlings on acid sulfate soils as affected by water regime and aluminium

In Malaysia, acid sulfate soils contain high amounts of aluminium and are usually utilized for oil palm cultivation. As these soils are frequently flooded during rainy periods, it is thought that this may affect the growth performance of the oil palm. A glasshouse experiment was, therefore, conducted to study the effects of water regime and aluminium on the growth of oil palm seedlings. Soils used in the experiment were Typic Sulfaquepts and Sulfic Tropaquepts from Pulau Lumut Island, Malaysia. Best growth was observed on a non-jarositic freely drained topsoil. Oil palm seedlings were found the be moderately tolerant to soil acidity. Growth was only affected if Al³⁺ and Al_sum activities in the soil solutions were above 100 and 700 M, respectively. Root length was found to be one of the better parameters to predict crop growth, while others included plant height, fron length and LAI. Soil solution attributes which could be used as indices of soil acidity for oil palm growth were pH and activities of Al³⁺, AlSO₄ ⁺ and Al_sum.     

Effects of polyculture and monoculture farming in oil palm smallholdings on tropical fruit‐feeding butterfly diversity

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Ethanol production from oil palm trunks treated with aqueous ammonia and cellulase

Oil palm trunks are a possible lignocellulosic source for ethanol production. Low enzymatic digestibility of this type of material (11.9% of the theoretical glucose yield) makes pretreatment necessary. An enzymatic digestibility of 95.4% with insoluble solids recovery of 49.8% was achieved after soaking shredded oil palm trunks in ammonia under optimum conditions (80 °C, 1:12 solid-to-liquid ratio, 8 h and 7% (w/w) ammonia solution). Treatment with 60 FPU of commercial cellulase (Accellerase 1000) per gram of glucan and fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae D₅A resulted in an ethanol concentration of 13.3 g/L and an ethanol yield of 78.3% (based on the theoretical maximum) after 96 h. These results indicate that oil palm trunks are a biomass feedstock that can be used for bioethanol production.     

Decomposition and nutrient release temporal pattern of oil palm residues

The decomposition and nutrient release temporal patterns of three oil palm residues used as soil mulch were studied. Empty fruit bunches (EFB; 1000 kg plot^?1), Eco‐mat (processed EFB carpet; 30 kg plot^?1), and pruned palm fronds (180 kg plot^?1) were left to decompose (and sampled monthly) on the soil surface for 8 months. The frond's leaflets had the highest initial concentration for most nutrients, and the frond's rachis and Eco‐mat the lowest. The order of residue quality and rate of residue mass loss were: leaflets > fronds > EFB > Eco‐mat > rachis. EFB however had a higher mass loss rate than the fronds. Residue mass loss and nutrient release rates were faster at the beginning than at the end of the decomposition period. Leaflets released the highest total amount of nutrients (except for K), and rachis the lowest. The fronds released either significantly higher (for N and Ca) or not significantly different (for P and Mg) total amount of nutrients than EFB. Converting EFB into Eco‐mat had resulted in nutrient losses (e.g. N, K and Mg) and a residue quality reduction in Eco‐mat. This study's results would aid in better soil and oil palm fertilisation management.     

The impacts of habitat disturbance on adult and larval dragonflies (Odonata) in rainforest streams in Sabah,Malaysian Borneo

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Logged peat swamp forest supports greater macrofungal biodiversity than large‐scale oil palm plantations and smallholdings

Intensive land expansion of commercial oil palm agricultural lands results in reducing the size of peat swamp forests, particularly in Southeast Asia. The effect of this land conversion on macrofungal biodiversity is, however, understudied. We quantified macrofungal biodiversity by identifying mushroom sporocarps throughout four different habitats; logged peat swamp forest, large‐scale oil palm plantation, monoculture, and polyculture smallholdings. We recorded a total of 757 clusters of macrofungi belonging to 127 morphospecies and found that substrates for growing macrofungi were abundant in peat swamp forest; hence, morphospecies richness and macrofungal clusters were significantly greater in logged peat swamp forest than converted oil palm agriculture lands. Environmental factors that influence macrofungi in logged peat swamp forests such as air temperature, humidity, wind speed, soil pH, and soil moisture were different from those in oil palm plantations and smallholdings. We conclude that peat swamp forests are irreplaceable with respect to macrofungal biodiversity. They host much greater macrofungal biodiversity than any of the oil palm agricultural lands. It is imperative that further expansion of oil palm plantation into remaining peat swamp forests should be prohibited in palm oil producing countries. These results imply that macrofungal distribution reflects changes in microclimate between habitats and reduced macrofungal biodiversity may adversely affect decomposition in human‐modified landscapes.     

Heterogeneity of tree diversity and carbon stocks in Amazonian oil palm landscapes

ABSTRACT

Background: Quantitative effects of large-scale oil palm expansion in the Neotropics on biodiversity and carbon stocks are still poorly documented.

Aims: We evaluated differences in tree species composition and richness, and above-ground carbon stocks among dominant land cover types in Pará state, Brazil.

Methods: We quantified tree species composition and richness and above-ground carbon stock in stands in remnant primary rain forest, young secondary forest, oil palm plantation and pastures.

Results: We sampled 5,696 trees with a DBH ≥ 2 cm, of 413 species in 68 families, of which 381 species were recorded in primary forest fragments. We found significant differences in species richness and carbon stock among the four land cover classes. Carbon stocks in remnant primary forest were typically over 190 Mg ha^?1, while those in other land cover types were typically less than 60 Mg ha^?1.

Conclusion: Oil palm plantations have a species-poor tree community given active management; old plantations have a standing carbon stock which is comparable to that of secondary forest and far greater than that of pastures. Private forest reserves within oil palm company holdings play an important role in preserving primary forest tree diversity in human-modified landscapes in Amazonia.