Feasibility Study of Performing an Life Cycle Assessment on Crude Palm Oil Production in Malaysia (9 pp)

Background, Goal and Scope The palm oil industry is one of the leading industries in Malaysia. With a yearly production of more than 13 million tons of crude palm oil (CPO) and plantations covering 11% of the Malaysian land area it is an industry to be reckoned with, also when it comes to environmental impacts. One way to describe and present the environmental impacts is through a life cycle assessment, LCA. This assessment aims to introduce the concept of LCA and perform a screening LCA on crude palm oil production in Malaysia including the stages of plantation, transport and milling. The assessment is largely based on general data and is thus meant to function as an indication of the environmental threads posed by CPO production and as a guideline to CPO producers and local universities on how to perform an LCA on a palm oil scenario. Due to the general data background the results of this report should not be quoted directly for decision making. The Functional Unit, to which all masses and emissions in this assessment have been adjusted, is the production of 1000 kg of CPO in Malaysia. Method Initially an overview of palm oil production was obtained and the outlines and borders of the assessment were determined along with the specific goal and scope of the assessment. The data for the assessment was collected from three different sources: - 1. Earlier studies and statistics on palm oil production in Malaysia - 2. Studies on similar processes, when palm oil related processes were not available - 3. General data from the SimaPro 5 database - The European Eco-Indicator 99 method and European databases included in the LCA software SimaPro 5 have been used for the impact calculations. Results and Discussion The impact processes related to the plantation are the on-site energy use (mainly diesel) and the production of artificial fertilizer. Pesticide use contributes a minor impact due to widely used integrated biological poet management. For transportation the only impact is from combustion of diesel and at the mill the boiler is the sole significant contributor – positively through electricity production and negatively by emissions from the boiler. Impacts from POME (Palm Oil Mill Effluent) are not dealt with in the main assessment, but touched upon in alternative scenarios. The results clearly show that fertilizer production is the most polluting process in the system followed by transportation and the boiler emissions at a tie. The most significant impacts from the system are respiratory inorganics and depletion of fossil fuels, of which the boiler emission is the main responsible for the prior and fertilizer production and transportation are responsible for the latter. It is also evident from the results that crude palm oil production is a significant environmental impact generator in Malaysia due to the vast production quantities. Alternative scenarios revealed that there are significant impact savings to be made by introduction of environmental investments, both regarding the overall impacts and in particularly regarding CO2 emissions. Conclusion A screening LCA was successfully conducted on the Malaysian crude palm oil production thus promising potentials for the palm oil industry to conduct their own inventories and assessments using specific company data. Crude palm oil production in Malaysia is responsible for app. 3.5% of the total environmental impacts in the country and must thus be given attention to reduce impacts. Alternatives such as optimized use of organic fertilizer, environmentally friendlier artificial fertilizer production, rail transport, approved filters at the mill boiler stack and biogas harvest from POME digestion must thus be promoted in the industry. Recommendation . The Malaysian palm oil industry should take steps towards introducing LCA. Exhaustive inventories are likely to open the eyes of many companies towards implementing environmental investments and improve the international competitiveness. In order to retrieve results with a greater accuracy in the future, databases must be created containing life cycle data from Malaysian scenarios and normalization and weighting factors must be designed to reflect Malaysian conditions. The Malaysian authorities must create incentives through increased tariffs on electricity and diesel and/or financial support for cleaner technology investments.     

Molecular Characterization and Detection of African Oil Palm Ringspot Virus

African oil palm ringspot virus (AOPRV) had been previously described as a fovea‐like virus associated with a lethal disease of African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) in South America. The original report was based on partial sequence and a distant relationship between AOPRV and Apple stem pitting virus, Apricot latent virus and Grapevine rupestris stem pitting‐associated virus, definitive species of the genus Foveavirus, family Flexiviridae. We report the full sequence of the RNA genome of AOPRV, and demonstrate that this virus is more closely related to two unassigned virus species of the family Flexiviridae (Cherry green ring mottle virus and Cherry necrotic rusty mottle virus) than to any definitive species of the genus Foveavirus. Thus, AOPRV should be considered as a new species of the Flexiviridae until the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) resolves the taxonomic status of the increasing number of unassigned species in this family. The molecular characterization of AOPRV has provided a highly sensitive and reliable RT‐PCR assay for the early detection of AOPRV in different genotypes of African, American (E. oleifera) and hybrid oil palms.     

程序降温法固相酶催化棕榈油甘油解的研究

单脂肪酸甘油酯(单甘酯)的酶法合成工艺中最具有工业化前景的当属固体相油脂甘油解。彭立风、谭天伟[1～2]以猪胰脂肪酶固相催化牛油、棕榈油甘油解合成单甘酯,甘油与油脂摩尔比为2～4∶1,最佳反应温度下反应24ｈ后单甘酯含量最高分别达1951%和2417%,将反应物于更低温度下…     

Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch and Sugarcane Bagasse Enhance the Bioremediation of Soil Artificially Polluted by Crude Oil

Contamination of soil by petroleum hydrocarbons is becoming prevalent in Malaysia. Infiltration of soil contamination into groundwater poses a great threat to the ecosystem and human health. Bioremediation can occur naturally or can be enhanced with supplementation of microorganisms and fertilizers. However, fertilizers are expensive and therefore alternative nutrient-rich biomaterials are required. In this study, two organic wastes from agricultural industry (i.e., sugarcane bagasse and oil palm empty fruit bunch) were investigated for possible enhanced bioremediation of soil contaminated with Tapis crude oil. Two bacterial strains isolated and characterized previously (i.e., Pseudomonas aeruginosa UKMP-14T and Acinetobacter baumannii UKMP-12T) were used in this study. Sugarcane bagasse (5% and 15%, w/w) and oil palm empty fruit bunch (20%, w/w) were mixed with soil (500 g) spiked with Tapis crude oil (3%, v/w). The treated soils as well as controls were incubated for 20 days under controlled conditions. Sampling was carried out every four days to measure the number of bacterial colonies (CFU/g) and to determine the percentage of oil degradation by gas chromatography. The two biostimulating agents were able to maintain the soil moisture holding capacity, pH, and temperature at 38-40% volumetric moisture content (VMC), 7.0, and 29–30°C; respectively. The growth of bacteria consortium after 20 days in the treatment with sugarcane bagasse and oil palm empty fruit bunch had increased to 10.3 CFU/g and 9.5 CFU/g, respectively. The percentage of hydrocarbon degradation was higher in the soil amended with sugarcane bagasse (100%) when compared to that of oil palm empty fruit bunch (97%) after 20 days. Our results demonstrated the potential of sugarcane bagasse and oil palm empty fruit bunch as good substrates for enhanced bioremediation of soil contaminated with petroleum crude oil.     

Cardoon as a Sustainable Crop for Biomass and Bioactive Compounds Production

Cardoon is a multi‐purpose and versatile Mediterranean crop, adapted to climate change, with a wide spectrum of potential applications due its added value as a rich source of fibers, oils and bioactive compounds. The Cynara species are a component of the Mediterranean diet and have been used as food and medicine since ancient times. The important role of cardoon in human nutrition, as a functional food, is due to its high content of nutraceutical and bioactive compounds such as oligofructose inulin, caffeoylquinic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, sesquiterpenes lactones, triterpenes, fatty acids and aspartic proteases. The present review highlights the characteristics and functions of cardoon biomass which permits the development of innovative products in food and nutrition, pharmaceutics and cosmetics, plant protection and biocides, oils and energy, lignocellulose materials, and healthcare industries following the actual trends of a circular economy.     

Association of Pollinators of Different Species of Oil Palm with the Metabolic Profiling of Volatile Organic Compounds

The development of studies on emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by inflorescence of oil palms deserves a special attention regarding the importance to reproduction success and for increase of production. This study aimed to evaluate metabolic profiling of VOCs expelled by male and female inflorescences of different oil palm species (African oil palm, Amazonian Caiaué and the interspecific hybrid BRS‐Manicoré), associating the composition variability with main pollinators to improve the comprehension of the plant?insect relationship. The phenylpropanoids, terpenoids and the aliphatic hydrocarbons were predominant classes detected in inflorescences of oil palms and the major compound was estragole. This result may be correlated with attraction of Elaidobius pollinators, since these insects were not attracted by Caiaué, which emitted estragole only in trace amounts. However, Caiaué and the hybrid species were visited by other native species whose frequencies were low and their success as pollinators could not be expected.     

不同时间下低温胁迫对油棕幼苗生理生化变化的影响

为了研究不同时间的低温胁迫对油棕幼苗生理生化变化的影响,以8个月苗龄的油棕幼苗为材料,根据海南的气温变化规律,设置4个不同的最低温度处理,分别为28℃(CK处理),18℃（T1处理）、12℃（T2处理）、6℃（T3处理）,分别处理0、7、14、21 d时取样。结果发现,随着温度的下降和低温胁迫时间的延长,幼苗叶片含水量、SOD活性不断下降;可溶性蛋白、可溶性糖含量、H₂O₂、MDA含量不断升高;POD、CAT、APX活性先上升而后下降;T2、T3处理2周后的幼苗其心叶都变褐色,且生长明显减缓。低温会对油棕幼苗造成了明显地氧化伤害,但油棕幼苗可能通过提高可溶性蛋白、可溶性糖等物质的含量,抗氧化酶维持一定活性的适应机制,以抵抗低温造成的氧化伤害,维持其正常生长。     

Population Dynamics of the Dioecious Amazonian Palm Mauritia flexuosa: Simulation Analysis of Sustainable Harvesting

The dioecious, tropical palm Mauritia flexuosa has high ecological and economic value, but currently some wild populations are harvested excessively, which is likely to increase. In this study, we investigated the population dynamics of this important palm, the effects of harvesting, and suggested sustainable harvesting regimes. Data were collected from populations in the Ecuadorian Amazon that were assumed to be stable. We used a matrix population model to calculate the density-independent asymptotic population growth rate (λ= 1.046) and to evaluate harvesting scenarios. Elasticity analysis showed that survival (particularly in the second and fifth size class) contributes more to the population growth rate, than growth and fecundity. To simulate a stable population at carrying capacity, density dependence was incorporated and applied to the seedling survival and growth parameters in the transition matrix. Harvesting scenarios were simulated with the density-dependent population models to predict sustainable harvesting regimes for the dioecious palm. We simulated the removal of only female palms and showed how both sexes are affected with harvest intensities between 15 and 75 percent and harvest intervals of 1–15 yr. By assuming a minimum female threshold, we demonstrated a continuum of sustainable harvesting schedules for various intensities and frequencies for 100 yr of harvest. Furthermore, by setting the population model's λ= 1.00, we found that a harvest of 22.5 percent on a 20 yr frequency for the M. flexuosa population in Ecuador is consistent with a sustainable, viable population over time.     

Long-Term Chemiluminescent Signal Is Produced in the Course of Luminol Peroxidation Catalyzed by Peroxidase Isolated from Leaves of African Oil Palm Tree

Optimal conditions were found for the oxidation of luminol by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of peroxidase isolated from leaves of the African oil palm tree Elaeis guineensis (AOPTP). The pH range for maximal chemiluminescence intensity (8.3-8.6) is similar for AOPTP, horseradish, and Arthromyces ramosus peroxidases and slightly different from that for tobacco peroxidase (9.3). Increasing the buffer concentration decreases the chemiluminescence intensity. As in the case of other anionic peroxidases, the catalytic efficiency of AOPTP does not depend on the presence of enhancers (4-iodophenol and 4-hydroxycinnamic acid) in the reaction medium. The detectable limit of AOPTP assayed by luminol peroxidation is 2·10^–12 M. The long-term chemiluminescence signal produced during AOPTP-dependent luminol peroxidation is a characteristic feature of the African oil palm enzyme. This feature in combination with its very high stability suggests that AOPTP will be a promising tool in analytical practice.     

Impact of Colored Shade Nets on Biomass Production,Essential Oil Composition and Orientin and Isoorientin Content in Lippia gracilis Schauer

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of ChromatiNet on vegetative growth, total antioxidant capacity, phenolic and essential oils (EOs) composition of Lippia gracilis. The plants were cultivated under full sunlight, black, blue and red ChromatiNet. The flavonoid content and antioxidant capacity were quantified spectrophotometrically. The C-glycosylflavone isomers (orientin and isoorientin) were isolated and identified by conventional spectroscopic techniques and measured using high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection. The EO was analysed by gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Environment influenced growth, total antioxidant capacity and phytochemical levels. Shoot dry weight, thymol, carvacrol and (E)-caryophyllene were favoured under red and black ChromatiNet. Root growth, EOs, caryophyllene oxide, p-cymene, flavonoids, orientin and isoorientin were favoured in sunlight. Growth and accumulation of EOs, flavonoids and photosynthetic pigments increased under blue ChromatiNet. Therefore, Lippia gracilis plants have plasticity related to the spectral quality of light and it cultivate depends of the phytochemicals of interest.     

Cadmium and Zinc Concentrations in Soils and Oil Palm Tissues as Affected by Long-Term Application of Phosphate Rock Fertilizers

The study was conducted to determine Cd and Zn concentrations in soils with three different ages of oil palm trees (<10, >15, >20 years) and plant parts as affected by long-term application of phosphate rock fertilizers. To investigate this issue on Malaysia's oil palm plantations, six soil series that undergo a scheduled fertilizer program were collected. Jawa, Selangor, and Sedu Series were selected from a plantation in the coastal area, whilst Munchong, Rengam, and Segamat Series were collected from a plantation in the inland area. Fronds and fruitlets were also collected along with the soils (paired sampling). To verify the findings of the field study, Cd and Zn adsorption isotherms were prepared. Competitive adsorption between Zn and Cd was also conducted. There was no accumulation of Cd in all the soil series but Zn accumulated in the Selangor and Segamat Series. Fruitlets (edible part) show no increase in Cd and Zn concentrations, but Jawa and Selangor Series show increasing values of Zn concentrations in the fronds. A correlation study reveals that soil pH and clay content were the soil properties that controlled Cd and Zn concentrations in soils. Cadmium in soils and soil solutions most probably contributed to the Cd concentrations in fruitlets, whereas Cd and Zn in soils may influence the uptake of these elements by the oil palm trees. The highest Cd and Zn accumulation in Segamat Series Soil had been shown in the adsorption isotherm study. Cadmium adsorption was decreased in the presence of Zn, leading to no accumulation of Cd in all the soil series.     

生物质热裂解生产生物燃料的研究进展

生物质能源是一种绿色的可以替代化石能源的一种可再生的能源。尽管高温分解生物质处于发展阶段,但在目前水平,高温裂解因其可以在氧存在下热分解将生物材料直接转化为固态,液态和气态能源产品而受到广泛关注。本文介绍了生物质的热裂解,包括慢速热裂解、快速热裂解、闪解、催化热裂解等过程,重点讨论了在各种生物质材料的热裂解过程中各种操作参数如温度和生物粒子大小等对生物燃料收率的影响。     

In vitro Antagonistic Interactions Between Endophytic Basidiomycetes of Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis) and Ganoderma boninense

Ganoderma boninense is a white rot basidiomycete that causes basal stem rot disease of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). The aims of this study were to identify endophytic basidiomycetes occurring naturally within oil palm and to assess their potential as biocontrol agents against G. boninense strain PER71 in vitro. In total, 376 isolates were recovered from samples collected from the root, stem and leaves of oil palm using Ganoderma‐selective medium. Ten of these isolates (2.7% of the total 376 isolates) were identified as basidiomycetes on the basis of clamp connections and the production of poroid basidiomes after incubation in glass jars containing PDA medium for 7–12 days. The isolates were identified using ITS rDNA sequencing as Neonothopanus nambi (five isolates), Schizophyllum commune (four isolates) and Ganoderma orbiforme (one isolate). The N. nambi isolates showed the greatest antagonistic activity against G. boninense, based on 73–85% inhibition of the radial growth measurements of G. boninense in dual culture and 76–100% inhibition of G. boninense growth in a culture filtrate assay. Possible modes of action for the antagonism shown by N. nambi against G. boninense in vitro include competition for substrate availability, space and the production of non‐volatile metabolites or antibiotics that inhibited the growth of G. boninense. Further in vivo investigations are required to determine the ability of N. nambi isolates to colonize oil palm seedlings and to protect oil palm from infection when challenged with G. boninense.     

Effect of Oil on the Population,Biomass, and Viability of Fungi in Highmoor Peats

Some microbiological parameters, such as the fungal mycelium length, the number of fungal spores, the distribution profiles of micromycetes, the viability of fungal propagules, the length distribution of micromycete hyphae, and the ratio between fungal spores and yeastlike cells, can be used to determine the degree of soil contamination with oil and the concentration that is inhibitory to micromycete complexes of highmoor peats.     

Biorefinery Developments for Advanced Biofuels from a Sustainable Array of Biomass Feedstocks: Survey of Recent Biomass Conversion Research from Agricultural Research Service

When the USA passed the Renewable Fuel Standards (RFS) of 2007 into law, it mandated that, by the year 2022, 36 billion gallons of biofuels be produced annually in the USA to displace petroleum. This targeted quota, which required that at least half of domestic transportation fuel be “advanced biofuels” either produced from lignocellulosic feedstocks or be a sustainable liquid fuel other than corn ethanol or biodiesel from vegetable oils, will not likely be met due to the difficulty in commercializing alternative biofuels. The number one cost to a biorefinery is the biomass feedstock cost. Thus, it is important that research into biorefinery strategies be closely coupled to advances in crop science that account for crop yield and crop quality. To reach the RFS targets, stepwise progress in biorefinery technology is needed, as the industry moves from corn ethanol toward utilizing a wider array of lignocellulose-based biomass feedstocks. In 2010, the US Department of Agriculture created five Regional Biomass Research Centers to optimize production, collection, and conversion of crops to bioenergy, thus building a network that fosters collaboration among researchers to improve the biorefinery industry. An important component of the five Regional Biomass Research Centers is the four USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) regional utilization laboratories located across the country. These USDA ARS labs were originally set up by their commodities, whereby, in broad terms, the Northern Lab, now NCAUR, focused on corn and soy; the Eastern Lab on oils, leather, dairy, and meats; the Southern Lab on cotton, sugars, and fibers; and the Western Lab on other grains, including wheat and specialty crops. Each lab’s traditional expertise in these respective core commodity crops has been maintained as biofuel research came to the fore, but with the addition of new crops and biotechnological expertise, these labs often collaborate with each other, as will be revealed below. This review outlines some of the recent advances from the ARS labs in developing new bioprocessing strategies required to develop bioenergy from new crop sources.     

Differential Gene Expression and Characterization of Tissue-specific cDNA Clones in Oil Palm using mRNA Differential Display

The mRNA differential display method was utilized to study the differential expression and regulation of genes in two species of oil palm, the commercially grown variety Elaeis guineensis, var. tenera and the South American species, Elaeis oleifera. We demonstrated the differential expression of genes in the mesocarp and kernel at the week of active oil synthesis (15 week after anthesis) during fruit development as compare to the roots and leaves and the isolation of tissue-specific and species-specific cDNA clones. A total of eight specific cDNA clones were isolated and their specificities were confirmed by Northern hybridization and classified into three groups. Group one contains four clones (KT3, KT4, KT5 and KT6) that are kernel-specific for E. guineensis, tenera and E. oleifera. The second group represents clone FST1, which is mesocarp and kernel-specific for E. guineensis, tenera and E. oleifera. The third group represents clones MLT1, MLT2 and MLO1 that are mesocarp and leaf-specific. Northern analysis showed that their expressions were developmentally regulated. Nucleotide sequencing and homology search in GenBank data revealed that clones KT3 and KT4 encode for the same maturation protein PM3. While clones MLT1 and MLT2 encode for S-ribonuclease binding protein and fibrillin, respectively. The other clones (KT5, KT6, FST1 and MLO1) did not display any significant homology to any known protein.     

Sequence Analysis of 16S rRNA and secA Genes Confirms the Association of 16SrI‐B Subgroup Phytoplasma with Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) Stunting Disease in India

During January 2010, severe stunting symptoms were observed in clonally propagated oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) in West Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Leaf samples of symptomatic oil palms were collected, and the presence of phytoplasma was confirmed by nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using universal phytoplasma‐specific primer pairs P1/P7 followed by R16F2n/R16R2 for amplification of the 16S rRNA gene and semi‐nested PCR using universal phytoplasma‐specific primer pairs SecAfor1/SecArev3 followed by SecAfor2/SecArev3 for amplification of a part of the secA gene. Sequencing and BLAST analysis of the ～1.25 kb and ～480 bp of 16S rDNA and secA gene fragments indicated that the phytoplasma associated with oil palm stunting (OPS) disease was identical to 16SrI aster yellows group phytoplasma. Further characterization of the phytoplasma by in silico restriction enzyme digestion of 16S rDNA and virtual gel plotting of sequenced 16S rDNA of ～1.25 kb using iPhyClassifier online tool indicated that OPS phytoplasma is a member of 16SrI‐B subgroup and is a ‘Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris’‐related strain. Phylogenetic analysis of 16S rDNA and secA of OPS phytoplasma also grouped it with 16SrI‐B. This is the first report of association of phytoplasma of the 16SrI‐B subgroup phytoplasma with oil palm in the world.     

生物质的综合利用技术在燃料乙醇产业中的应用

概述了燃料乙醇生产的生物质及其特点,重点阐述了小麦、玉米等原料生产乙醇的综合开发技术,并对甘蔗和木薯为原料生产燃料乙醇进行了经济性评价。