Gene conversion accounts for pilin structural changes and for reversible piliation “phase” changes in gonococci

Pilus⁺ wild-type gonococci (Gc) frequently display gene conversion of their expressed complete pilin gene (CPG); a copy of DNA derived from one of the Gc genome's multiple silent partial pilin genes (PPG) is recombinationally-inserted into the CPG's central and 3 portions with formation of a new, chimeric CPG. Expression of that new CPG leads to either 1) retention of pilus⁺ phenotype but change in pilin primary structure/antigenicity, or 2) phase change to pilus^– phenotype capable of reverting. This study utilizes pilus revertants of P^– rp±Gc and P⁺ colony morphotye variants spawned by P⁺⁺ Gc to examine pilin gene conversion in strain MS11_mk Gc in greater detail. Each revertant's and variant's expressed pilin gene's sequence (as pilin mRNA) was defined to learn whether their differences are due to gene conversion by different PPGs, or by varying stretches from the same PPG, or both. Gene conversion by PPG pilS1 copy 2 has been documented in Gc recovered from a human voluteer's urethra previously inoculated with pilus Gc (strain MS11). The pilus⁺ Gc isolated expressed structurally/antigenically distinct pilins.     

On the spatial structure of a plant cell wall protein. Secondary structure of a cell wall protein fromAcetabularia

Summary The structure of a purified protein associated with the cell wall polysaccharides of the marine green algaeAcetabularia (Polyphysa) cliftonii has been studied by means of X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy and circular dichroism. The homogeneous preparation of the cell wall protein has a molecular weight of 14,000, as determined by sodium-dodecylsulfate electrophoresis. Regular layer line reflections on the X-ray diffraction photographs suggest that a distinct order exists in the arrangement of the protein fibrils. Through infrared spectroscopy of thin aqueous films of the protein, as well as of the fibers, it was established that the -helical structure is predominant in the cell wall protein. The fibers crystallize in a hexagonal unit cell witha=14.5 Å and c=27.0 Å, at a water content of two molecules per residue. Increase in water content causes an increase in thea-axis, but without change in thec-direction, thus keeping the -helical conformation. Moreover the spectral data in the amide A, I, II, III, and IV-regions show that the cell wall protein has an ordered -helical conformation.     

Towards structural elucidation of eukaryotic photosystem II: Purification, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of photosystem II from a red alga

Crystal structure of photosystem II (PSII) has been reported from prokaryotic cyanobacteria but not from any eukaryotes. In the present study, we improved the purification procedure of PSII dimers from an acidophilic, thermophilic red alga Cyanidium caldarium, and crystallized them in two forms under different crystallization conditions. One had a space group of P222₁ with unit cell constants of a = 146.8 Å, b = 176.9 Å, and c = 353.7 Å, and the other one had a space group of P2₁2₁2₁ with unit cell constants of a = 209.2 Å, b = 237.5 Å, and c = 299.8 Å. The unit cell constants of both crystals and the space group of the first-type crystals are different from those of cyanobacterial crystals, which may reflect the structural differences between the red algal and cyanobacterial PSII, as the former contains a fourth extrinsic protein of 20 kDa. X-ray diffraction data were collected and processed to a 3.8 Å resolution with the first type crystal. For the second type crystal, a post-crystallization treatment of dehydration was employed to improve the resolution, resulting in a diffraction data of 3.5 Å resolution. Analysis of this type of crystal revealed that there are 2 PSII dimers in each asymmetric unit, giving rise to 16 PSII monomers in each unit cell, which contrasts to 4 dimers per unit cell in cyanobacterial crystals. The molecular packing of PSII within the unit cell was constructed with the molecular replacement method and compared with that of the cyanobacterial crystals.     

The ultrastructure of topical cutaneous calcinosis

Summary Mineralized plaques, which develop at the site of repeated subcutaneous injections of 100 g KMnO₄/0.2 H₂O in rats, were investigated by electron microscopy. The newly formed, delineated, white plaque tissue at the injection site consisted of numerous, mostly unaltered fibroblasts and collagen fibers, without participation of inflammatory cells. Some signs of cell injury were found in the center of the lesions. Numerous, irregularly distributed, small, mineralized foci were seen near the fibroblasts. These were formed by aggregation of small needle-like units (50 Å in diameter and 0.05–2.0 m long). These needle-shaped units were found either in vesicular, cell derived structures, considered to be shed cell processes or cell fragments, or on collagen fibers. Intramitochondrial deposits of such needle-like units were seen frequently. Fusion of smaller mineralized foci to larger plaques occured and then needle-shaped units were seen at the periphery of the electron-dense lesions. Hypotheses concerning the mechanism of experimental cutaneous calcinosis (soft tissue mineralization) are discussed and related to the findings of this study. Probable intracellular crystal deposition and mineralization in cell-derived structures were shown for the first time in topical cutaneous calcinosis.     

Crystal structure of chicken liver basic fatty acid-binding protein at 2.7 Å resolution

The three-dimensional structure of chicken liver basic fatty acid-binding protein has been determined at 2.7 Å resolution by X-ray crystallography. Phases were calculated using the multiple isomorphous replacement procedure and a preliminary model was built. This model, with an initial R-factor of 0.57, was then improved by a cycle of refinement by simulated annealing which brought the R factor down to 0.32. The protein is structured as a compact 10-stranded--barrel which encapsulates a residual electron density that can be interpreted as a fatty acid molecule. The NH₂-terminus portion of the molecule contains two short -helices. The structure of this liver protein appears very similar to that of the Escherichia coli derived rat intestinal FABP recently determined by X-ray diffraction methods.     

SAXS study of the snake toxin α-crotamine

-crotamine is a small toxic protein (42 amino acid residues with three disulphide bridges) present in the venom of Crotallus durissus terrificus. Molecular parameters (R _g=13.7 Å, S=3,000 Ų, V=9,200 ų and D _max=40 Å) were derived from SAXS curves obtained from a solution of this protein at pH=4.5. An excellent agreement between the experimental distance distribution curve and that calculated from a model consisting of two lobes linked by the Cys(18)-Cys(30) disulphide bridge.     

Chromosomal unit fibers in Drosophila

Chromosomal unit fibers consisting of long, regular fibers of about 0.40 m diameter were obtained from disintegrated, isolated chromosomes of two Drosophila melanogaster cell lines. In one cell line with an essentially normal karyotype, three clearly defined size classes of 15, 13, and 11 m length were observed corresponding to the three larger chromosomes of Drosophila. In a cell line carrying an additional translocation between the two largest chromosomes a 19 m fiber derived from the translocation chromosome was observed. Direct determinations of the DNA content per m length of Drosophila unit fibers show that DNA is contracted by a factor of about 1400x in agreement with calculations based on the length of the unit fibers and the known DNA content of the individual Drosophila chromosomes. These findings support our previously proposed model for the unit fiber sub-structure of chromosomes as being derived by a hierarchy of coiling with the corresponding contraction ratios being 7 (100 Å string of nucleosomes), 5 to 6 (250–300 Å thick nucleohistone fiber), and about 40 (unit fiber), resulting in a total contraction of DNA in unit fibers in the order of 1400x.     

DNA sequence analysis of point mutations in traA, the F pilin gene, reveal two domains involved in F-specific bacteriophage attachment

Summary Six missense point mutations in traA (WPFL43,44,45,46,47 and 51), the gene encoding F pilin in the transfer region of the F plasmid, have been characterized for their effect on the transfer ability, bacteriophage (R17, QB and fl) sensitivity and levels of piliation expressed by the plasmid. The sequence analysis of the first five of these mutations revealed two domains in the F pilin subunit exposed on the surface of the F pilus which mediate phage attachment. These two domains include residues 14–17 (approximately) and the last few residues at the carboxy-terminus of the pilin protein. One of these mutants had a pleiotropic affect on pilus function and was thought to have affected pilus assembly. The sixthe point mutant (WPFL51), previously thought to be in traA, was complemented by chimeric plasmids carrying the traG gene of the F transfer region, which may be involved in the acetylation of the pilin subunit. A traA nonsense mutant (JCFL1) carried an amber mutation near the amino-terminus which is well suppressed in SuI⁺ (supD) and SuIII⁺ (supF) strains. Neither the antigenicity of the pilin nor the efficiency of plating of F-specific bacteriophages were affected when this plasmid was harbored by either suppressor strain. A second amber mutant (JCFL25) which is not suppressible, carried its mutation in the codon for the single tryptophan in F pilin, suggesting that this residue is important in subunit interactions during pilus assembly. Two other point mutants (JCFL32 and 44) carried missense mutations in the leader sequence (positions 9 and 13) which affected the number of pili per cell presumably by altering the processing of propilin to pilin.     

Crystallization of alcohol oxidase fromPichia pastoris. Secondary structure predictions indicate a domain with the eightfold β/α-barrel fold

Alcohol oxidase fromPichia pastoris has been crystallized from polyethylene glycol 4000 solutions. The crystals are tetragonal, a=228 Å, c=456 Å space groupP4₁2₁2. The crystals scatter only to about 6 Å resolution; their poor crystallinity may have some physiological function. Secondary structure predictions suggest that the C-terminal part of the molecule, residues 311–664, has the folding of an eightfold /-barrel (TIM barrel). This would indicate common ancestry with four other flavoenzymes: canavalin, glycolate oxidase, flavocytochrome b, and trimethylamine dehydrogenase.     

Pilus Biogenesis in Lactococcus lactis: Molecular Characterization and Role in Aggregation and Biofilm Formation

The genome of Lactococcus lactis strain IL1403 harbors a putative pilus biogenesis cluster consisting of a sortase C gene flanked by 3 LPxTG protein encoding genes (yhgD, yhgE, and yhhB), called here pil. However, pili were not detected under standard growth conditions. Over-expression of the pil operon resulted in production and display of pili on the surface of lactococci. Functional analysis of the pilus biogenesis machinery indicated that the pilus shaft is formed by oligomers of the YhgE pilin, that the pilus cap is formed by the YhgD pilin and that YhhB is the basal pilin allowing the tethering of the pilus fibers to the cell wall. Oligomerization of pilin subunits was catalyzed by sortase C while anchoring of pili to the cell wall was mediated by sortase A. Piliated L. lactis cells exhibited an auto-aggregation phenotype in liquid cultures, which was attributed to the polymerization of major pilin, YhgE. The piliated lactococci formed thicker, more aerial biofilms compared to those produced by non-piliated bacteria. This phenotype was attributed to oligomers of YhgE. This study provides the first dissection of the pilus biogenesis machinery in a non-pathogenic Gram-positive bacterium. Analysis of natural lactococci isolates from clinical and vegetal environments showed pili production under standard growth conditions. The identification of functional pili in lactococci suggests that the changes they promote in aggregation and biofilm formation may be important for the natural lifestyle as well as for applications in which these bacteria are used.     

Acyl Enzyme Intermediates in Sortase-Catalyzed Pilus Morphogenesis in Gram-Positive Bacteria

In gram-positive bacteria, covalently linked pilus polymers are assembled by a specific transpeptidase enzyme called pilus-specific sortase. This sortase is postulated to cleave the LPXTG motif of a pilin precursor between threonine and glycine and to form an acyl enzyme intermediate with the substrate. Pilus polymerization is believed to occur through the resolution of this intermediate upon specific nucleophilic attack by the conserved lysine located within the pilin motif of another pilin monomer, which joins two pilins with an isopeptide bond formed between threonine and lysine. Here, we present evidence for sortase reaction intermediates in Corynebacterium diphtheriae. We show that truncated SrtA mutants that are loosely bound to the cytoplasmic membrane form high-molecular-weight complexes with SpaA polymers secreted into the extracellular milieu. These complexes are not formed with SpaA pilin mutants that have alanine substitutions in place of threonine in the LPXTG motif or lysine in the pilin motif. The same phenotype is observed with alanine substitutions of either the conserved cysteine or histidine residue of SrtA known to be required for catalysis. Remarkably, the assembly of SpaA pili, or the formation of intermediates, is abolished with a SrtA mutant missing the membrane-anchoring domain. We infer that pilus polymerization involves the formation of covalent pilin-sortase intermediates, which occurs within a molecular platform on the exoplasmic face of the cytoplasmic membrane that brings together both sortase and its cognate substrates in close proximity to each other, likely surrounding a secretion apparatus. We present electron microscopic data in support of this picture.Adherence to specific host tissue is a key step in bacterial colonization and the establishment of a successful infection by bacterial pathogens. Bacteria express a variety of adhesive cell surface molecules to bind host cells or other substrates in their natural habitat. The proteinaceous filaments known as pili or fimbriae are a clinically important class of these molecules. Both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria express pili (6, 8). The gram-positive bacterial pili are unique in three respects (12, 25, 31). First, they represent heterodimeric or heterotrimeric protein polymers in which individual pilin subunits are covalently joined to each other (2, 9, 32). Second, the polymer itself is covalently attached to the cell wall (3, 31). Third, unlike pilus assembly in gram-negative bacteria, many of which require chaperones (26), the polymerization of the gram-positive pili and their cell wall attachment require specific transpeptidase enzymes called sortases (31).Mazmanian and colleagues discovered the sortase SrtA as an enzyme that linked the surface protein A of Staphylococcus aureus to its cell wall (15). Genome sequences revealed that sortases are ubiquitously expressed in gram-positive bacteria, including significant pathogens, such as Actinomyces naeslundii, Bacillus cereus, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus agalactiae, and Streptococcus pneumoniae (4, 5, 28). Sortases are classified according to their functions and phylogenic relationships (4, 5). The class that closely matches SrtA of S. aureus in structure and function is now called a housekeeping sortase. Its function is to attach numerous surface proteins to the cell wall (16). Common to each of these cell surface proteins is a cell wall sorting signal with an LPXTG motif that is absolutely necessary for cell wall anchoring (18). Elegant genetic, biochemical, and structural work by the Schneewind laboratory illuminated the universal reaction mechanism of protein sorting in the gram-positive cell wall (14). Cell wall anchoring of surface proteins is catalyzed in two steps. In the first step, SrtA cleaves the TG peptide bond of the LPXTG motif of protein A and forms an acyl enzyme intermediate involving the threonine of protein A and the catalytic cysteine of sortase (22, 27, 29). In the second step, the cleaved protein A is transferred to the cell wall when a nucleophile amine from the lipid II precursor attacks and resolves the acyl enzyme intermediate (20, 21, 30). This seminal work formed the basis of our current model of pilus assembly catalyzed by pilus-specific sortases (12).We have used C. diphtheriae as a model for studies of the mechanism of pilus biogenesis. The corynebacterial genome encodes six different sortases (32). We now know that while five of these sortases (SrtA to -E) are devoted to pilus assembly, even the housekeeping sortase, SrtF, is required for efficient attachment of pili to the cell wall (23). Corynebacteria produce three distinct types of heterotrimeric pili, which are encoded by three pilus islands, each encoding three pilins (namely, SpaABC, SpaDEF, and SpaGHI) plus one or two cognate sortases essential for the assembly of the respective pilus (7, 24, 32). In each case, the prototype pilus represents a shaft structure made of a specific major pilin (namely, SpaA, SpaD, and SpaH) (12). Each type of pilus also contains a minor pilin at the tip (SpaC, SpaF, and SpaG) and another minor pilin dispersed along the shaft, as well as at the base of the pilus (SpaB, SpaE, and SpaI) (12). How are these polymers assembled, and how are they attached to the cell wall? All pilin proteins are predicted to contain in their amino termini a hydrophobic signal sequence necessary for export to the exoplasm by the Sec machinery. In addition, like the cell wall-anchored protein A of S. aureus, a cell wall sorting signal including the LPXTG motif is also present at the carboxy terminus of each of the Spa proteins of corynebacteria and other pilus proteins found in different gram-positive organisms (17). It is thus logical to imagine that the pilus-specific sortase utilizes the LPXTG motif for pilus polymerization, its cell wall anchoring, or both. Substantial genetic, biochemical, and ultrastructural analyses have proved this prediction. Consequently, Ton-That and Schneewind proposed a model of pilus assembly which posited that the basic mechanism of catalysis is conserved between cell wall sorting of surface proteins and the assembly of the pilus (31).According to our current working model (Fig. ​(Fig.1A),1A), the prototype SpaA pilus is assembled as follows. SrtA, which is essential and also specific for SpaA pilus formation, captures and cleaves cognate pilins at the LPXTG motif and forms an acyl enzyme intermediate. To form a dimer of SpaA and SpaC, the proposed tip entity, a conserved lysine in the SpaA pilin motif attacks the Cys-Thr bond of the SpaC-SrtA acyl enzyme intermediate. Shaft formation ensues by the cyclic addition of SpaA to the SpaC-SpaA dimer and the SpaC-SpaA_n oligomer formed in the preceding reaction. When a SpaB is attached to the growing pilus terminus by a similar mechanism involving a critical lysine of SpaB, it acts as a switch, terminating pilus polymerization in favor of cell wall anchoring (11). This happens by the classic resolution reaction mentioned above, which involves the lipid II precursor (28), followed by its linkage to the cell wall (11). Alternatively, the SpaB-containing pilus can elongate further by adding a SpaA subunit to SpaB (11). This model explains all the available genetic and biochemical data we have obtained so far in the corynebacterial system, as well as other systems reported by various investigators.Open in a separate windowFIG. 1.(A) Working model of pilus assembly in C. diphtheriae. Spa pilins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and transported across the cytoplasmic membrane by the Sec machinery. The membrane-bound pilus-specific sortase SrtA cleaves the Spa pilins at the LPXTG motif and forms an acyl enzyme intermediate with the substrates. Pilus polymerization occurs when this intermediate is resolved by a nucleophilic attack by the lysine residue within the pilin motif of an adjacent intermediate. Cell wall anchoring terminates pilus polymerization when SpaB is incorporated into the pilus base by the housekeeping sortase, SrtF (see the text for details). (B) Membrane localization of the pilus-specific sortase SrtA. Corynebacteria grown to mid-log phase were separated from the culture medium (M) by centrifugation. The cell wall (W) was removed from its protoplast by muramidase treatment of the cells. The protoplasts were lysed, and membrane (P*) and cytoplasmic (C) compartments were obtained by ultracentrifugation. Protein samples were separated on 4 to 12% Tris-glycine gradient gels and detected by immunoblotting them with the specific antisera α-SrtA, α-SecA, and α-SpaA. The positions of molecular mass markers (kDa) are indicated. WT, wild type.Significantly, there has been no report demonstrating the proposed intermediates of pilus assembly, to our knowledge. The present study was initiated to explore this key element of our model of pilus assembly, as well as the localization of the sortase in the membrane and its organization in the exoplasmic membrane in relation to the cognate pilins and the general secretion machinery.     

A model for group B Streptococcus pilus type 1: the structure of a 35-kDa C-terminal fragment of the major pilin GBS80

The Gram-positive pathogen Streptococcus agalactiae, known as group B Streptococcus (GBS), is the leading cause of bacterial septicemia, pneumonia, and meningitis among neonates. GBS assembles two types of pili—pilus islands (PIs) 1 and 2—on its surface to adhere to host cells and to initiate colonization for pathogenesis. The GBS PI-1 pilus is made of one major pilin, GBS80, which forms the pilus shaft, and two secondary pilins, GBS104 and GBS52, which are incorporated into the pilus at various places. We report here the crystal structure of the 35-kDa C-terminal fragment from GBS80, which is composed of two IgG-like domains (N2-N3). The structure was solved by single-wavelength anomalous dispersion using sodium-iodide-soaked crystals and diffraction data collected at the home source. The N2 domain exhibits a cnaA/DEv-IgG fold with two calcium-binding sites, while the N3 domain displays a cnaB/IgG-rev fold. We have built a model for full-length GBS80 (N1, N2, and N3) with the help of available homologous major pilin structures, and we propose a model for the GBS PI-1 pilus shaft. The N2 and N3 domains are arranged in tandem along the pilus shaft, whereas the respective N1 domain is tilted by approximately 20° away from the pilus axis. We have also identified a pilin-like motif in the minor pilin GBS52, which might aid its incorporation at the pilus base.     

Conservation of genes encoding components of a type IV pilus assembly/two-step protein export pathway in Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Three gonococcal genes have been identified which encode proteins with substantial similarities to known components of the type IV pilus biogenesis pathway in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Two of the genes were identified based on their hybridization with a DNA probe derived from the pilB gene of P. aeruginosa under conditions of reduced stringency. The product of the gonococcal pilF gene is most closely related to the pilus assembly protein PilB of P. aeruginosa while the product of the gonococcal pilT gene is most similar to the PilT protein of P. aeruginosa which is involved in pilus-associated twitching motility and colony morphology. The products of both of these genes display canonical nucleoside triphosphate binding sites and are predicted to be to cytoplasmically localized based on their overall hydrophilicity. The gonococcal pilD gene, identified by virtue of its linkage to the pilF gene, is homologous to a family of prepilin leader peptidase genes. When expressed in Escherichia coli, the gonococcal PilD protein functions to process gonococcal prepilin in a manner consistent with its being gonococcal prepilin peptidase. These results suggest that Neisseria gonorrhoeae is capable of expressing many of the essential elements of a highly conserved protein translocation system and that these gene products are probably involved in pilus biogenesis.     

A closer look at the phosphorus-phosphorus double bond lengths in meta-terphenyl substituted diphosphenes

The single crystal X-ray structure of DmpPPDmp (1, Dmp = 2,6-Mes₂C₆H₃), which was previously reported to have a relatively short PP bond distance of 1.985(2) Å at room temperature, has been reexamined at variable temperatures. Crystallographic analyses of 1 at 100 K allow for resolution of disorder of the two phosphorus atoms (which is unresolvable from room temperature diffraction data), and for determination of a more conventional PP bond length of 2.029(1) Å. Single crystals of the closely related diphosphene DxpPPDxp (2, Dxp = 2,6-(2,6-Me₂C₆H₃)₂C₆H₃) show similar disorder in one of two crystallographically independent molecules in the unit cell. A value of 2.0276(4) Å is found for the non-disordered PP bonds at 100 K for 2. A new diphosphene Ar′PPAr′ (3, Ar′ = 2,6-Mes₂-4-OMe-C₆H₃) has been prepared and its structure has also been examined. The PP bond length for 3 was determined to be 2.0326(9) Å and relatively free of the effects of disorder.     

The role of pilin glycan in neisserial pathogenesis

The pilus of pathogenic Neisseria is a polymer composed mainly of the glycoprotein, pilin. Recent investigations significantly enhanced characterization of pilin glycan (Pg) from N. gonorrhoeae (gonococcus, GC) and N. meningitidis (meningococcus, MC). Several pilin glycosylation genes were discovered recently from these bacteria and some of these genes transfer sugars previously unknown to be present in neisserial pili. Due to these findings, glycans of GC and MC pilin are now considered more complex. Furthermore, various Pg can be expressed by different strains and variants of GC, as well as MC. Intra-species variation of Pg between different groups of GC or MC can partly be due to polymorphisms of glycosylation genes. In pilus of pathogenic Neisseria, alternative glycoforms are also produced due to phase-variation (Pv) of pilin glycosylation genes. Most remarkably, the pgtA (pilin glycosyl transferase A) gene of GC can either posses or lack the ability of Pv. Many GC strains carry the phase-variable (Pv+) pgtA, whereas others carry the allele lacking Pv (Pv–). Mostly, the GC isolates from disseminated gonococcal infection (DGI) carry Pv+ pgtA but organisms from uncomplicated gonorrhea (UG) contain the Pv– allele. This data suggests that Pv of pgtA facilitates DGI, whereas constitutive expression of the Pv– pgtA may promote UG. Additional implications of Pg in various physiological and pathogenic mechanisms of Neisseria can also be envisaged based on various recent data.     

Structural Characterization of Novel Pseudomonas aeruginosa Type IV Pilins

Pseudomonas aeruginosa type IV pili, composed of PilA subunits, are used for attachment and twitching motility on surfaces. P. aeruginosa strains express one of five phylogenetically distinct PilA proteins, four of which are associated with accessory proteins that are involved either in pilin posttranslational modification or in modulation of pilus retraction dynamics. Full understanding of pilin diversity is crucial for the development of a broadly protective pilus-based vaccine. Here, we report the 1.6-Å X-ray crystal structure of an N-terminally truncated form of the novel PilA from strain Pa110594 (group V), which represents the first non-group II pilin structure solved. Although it maintains the typical T4a pilin fold, with a long N-terminal α-helix and four-stranded antiparallel β-sheet connected to the C-terminus by a disulfide-bonded loop, the presence of an extra helix in the αβ-loop and a disulfide-bonded loop with helical character gives the structure T4b pilin characteristics. Despite the presence of T4b features, the structure of PilA from strain Pa110594 is most similar to the Neisseria gonorrhoeae pilin and is also predicted to assemble into a fiber similar to the GC pilus, based on our comparative pilus modeling. Interactions between surface-exposed areas of the pilin are suggested to contribute to pilus fiber stability. The non-synonymous sequence changes between group III and V pilins are clustered in the same surface-exposed areas, possibly having an effect on accessory protein interactions. However, based on our high-confidence model of group III PilA_PA14, compensatory changes allow for maintenance of a similar shape.     

Mucosal Adhesion Properties of the Probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG SpaCBA and SpaFED Pilin Subunits

Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG is a well-established Gram-positive probiotic strain, whose health-benefiting properties are dependent in part on prolonged residence in the gastrointestinal tract and are likely dictated by adherence to the intestinal mucosa. Previously, we identified two pilus gene clusters (spaCBA and spaFED) in the genome of this probiotic bacterium, each of which contained the predicted genes for three pilin subunits and a single sortase. We also confirmed the presence of SpaCBA pili on the cell surface and attributed an intestinal mucus-binding capacity to one of the pilin subunits (SpaC). Here, we report cloning of the remaining pilin genes (spaA, spaB, spaD, spaE, and spaF) in Escherichia coli, production and purification of the recombinant proteins, and assessment of the adherence of these proteins to human intestinal mucus. Our findings indicate that the SpaB and SpaF pilin subunits also exhibit substantial binding to mucus, which can be inhibited competitively in a dose-related manner. Moreover, the binding between the SpaB pilin subunit and the mucosal substrate appears to operate through electrostatic contacts and is not related to a recognized mucus-binding domain. We conclude from these results that it is conceivable that two pilin subunits (SpaB and SpaC) in the SpaCBA pilus fiber play a role in binding to intestinal mucus, but for the uncharacterized and putative SpaFED pilus fiber only a single pilin subunit (SpaF) is potentially responsible for adhesion to mucus.The human intestinal microbiota is comprised of more than 1,000 species of commensal and probiotic bacteria, including several members of the Gram-positive genus Lactobacillus (42, 52). Many strains of lactobacilli have a variety of health-promoting effects in humans and consequently have been used commercially as probiotics in foods and nutritional supplements (for a review, see reference 48). Often a necessary precondition for colonization of the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract by probiotic bacteria is preferential adherence to the intestinal mucosa, which in turn prolongs and stabilizes intestinal residence, possibly triggering a variety of defensive host cell immune responses and excluding pathogenic bacteria by competitive inhibition or steric hindrance (48). The outermost layer of the intestinal mucosa, which is a secreted and hydrated mucus gel that acts as a protective barrier and filter, consists primarily of a heterogeneous mixture of highly glycosylated membrane-associated and secreted glycoproteins called mucins (36). Although many studies have demonstrated that various probiotic Lactobacillus spp. adhere initially to the mucus gel layer, relatively few details about the overall molecular mechanism of mucosal adhesion are known (for a review, see reference 23). Nonetheless, several studies have reported that the adherence of Lactobacillus cells to the mucosal barrier is frequently due to a surface protein-mediated interaction. For example, Rojas et al. (44) determined that the ability of Lactobacillus fermentum 104R (reclassified as Lactobacillus reuteri 104R) to bind to porcine small intestinal mucus and gastric mucin was facilitated by a cell surface-localized mucus adhesion-promoting protein (MapA). Similarly, Macías-Rodríguez et al. (25) described two adhesion-associated proteins specific for porcine intestinal mucus-related substrates that are attached noncovalently to the cell surface of L. fermentum BCS87. Also, Roos and Jonsson (45) demonstrated adherence between the surface-associated Mub (mucus binding) protein from L. reuteri 1063 and intestinal mucus components derived from porcine and poultry sources. In addition, Pretzer et al. (38) identified a large multidomain surface protein in Lactobacillus plantarum WCFS1 with binding specificity for the mannose moieties in mucins. Interestingly, Kinoshita et al. (19) discovered that glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), an enzyme normally associated with glycolysis, is localized on the surface of L. plantarum LA318 cells and adheres tightly to human colonic mucin.Until quite recently, only indirect or circumstantial evidence suggested that pilus-like structures extend from the surface of probiotic lactobacilli (28, 39). However, in a previous study (18) we demonstrated that Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, a well-studied and widely used probiotic strain (48), is a piliated microbe. Pili are slender, elongated, heteromeric, proteinaceous surface appendages that are present in numerous other Gram-positive bacteria and often mediate adherence between pathogenic and nonpathogenic species and their host cell targets (for reviews, see references 20, 26, 40, and 49) but have now emerged as possible facilitators of adhesion for probiotic colonization of the GI tract (18). Prototypically, the pilus fiber is composed of one major pilin that forms the pilus backbone and two minor pilin subunits (26, 40, 49), one subunit that has a role in signaling the cessation of pilus polymerization (27, 30) and is deposited at the pilus base and at irregular intervals along the pilus backbone and another subunit with an adhesive property that is often localized at the pilus tip (1, 41). The current model of pilus assembly in Corynebacterium diphtheriae (27) suggests that these pilin subunits are connected covalently to one another through isopeptidyl bonds by a membrane-bound transpeptidase (pilin-specific sortase) to produce polymerized pili, which are then attached covalently to the cell wall by a different transpeptidase (the housekeeping sortase) that is capable of recognizing all C-terminal LPXTG-like substrates. The genes encoding these pilus proteins, as well as the pilin-specific sortase, are clustered at the same locus in the genome (54).In a recent study (18), we discovered that in the L. rhamnosus GG genome the genes encoding two different pilus fibers are in the spaCBA and spaFED gene clusters and, based on a genomic comparison with another L. rhamnosus strain (LC705), that the spaCBA cluster is present in only L. rhamnosus GG. Moreover, in our previous work (18) the predicted genes for the major pilin subunit forming the pilus backbone (SpaA and SpaD), one ancillary minor pilin subunit (SpaB and SpaE) that (based on a model for pilus biogenesis) is likely located at the pilus base and decorates the pilus backbone (27), and another larger adherent minor pilin subunit (SpaC and SpaF) were identified in L. rhamnosus GG on the basis of amino acid identity with pilins from two enterococcal species. In addition, we also detected in the sequences of the predicted spaCBA and spaFED gene products the anticipated consensus motifs and domains characteristic of a pilin primary structure, including the Sec-dependent secretion signal, the sortase recognition site, the YPKN pilin-like motif, and the E box (18). Subsequently, expression and localization of intact SpaCBA pili on the cell surface of L. rhamnosus GG were confirmed by immunoblotting and immunogold-labeled electron microscopy using antiserum specific for the SpaC pilin (18). Adhesion interactions between the L. rhamnosus GG strain and intestinal mucosal surfaces have been reported and characterized in previous studies (15, 31, 33, 46, 55-57). However, in our recent study (18), SpaCBA pilus-mediated binding of L. rhamnosus GG cells to human intestinal mucus was revealed in adhesion experiments performed with both L. rhamnosus GG pretreated with SpaC antiserum and an L. rhamnosus GG spaC insertion mutant. More specifically, we demonstrated that there was significant binding between recombinant SpaC pilin protein and intestinal mucus and thus identified a mucus-binding capacity for one of the minor pilin components localized at the tip and along the backbone of the SpaCBA pilus (18). To expand on these findings, here we describe a study in which each of the remaining predicted pilin subunits (SpaA, SpaB, SpaD, SpaE, and SpaF) encoded by genes in the spaCBA and spaFED gene clusters was overproduced in a recombinant form, purified to apparent homogeneity, and characterized to determine its adherence to human intestinal mucus.     

Hydrothermal synthesis and characterization of an unprecedented η-type octamolybdate: [{Ni(phen)2}2(Mo8O26)]

A new octamolybdate-supported transition metal complex [{Ni(phen)₂}₂(Mo₈O₂₆)] (1) has been hydrothermally synthesized and characterized by the elemental analyses, IR spectrum, XPS spectra, TG analysis and the single crystal X-ray diffraction. Compound 1 crystallizes in the monoclinic space group P2₁/c, a=10.446(2) Å, b=12.103(2) Å, c=21.956(4) Å, β=97.81(3)°, V=2750.0(10) ų, and Z=2. The single crystal X-ray diffraction analysis reveals that compound 1 is constructed from a novel unprecedented η-type octamolybdate cluster linked to two {Ni(phen)₂}₂ coordination complexes.