Progress in the study of algae and mosses in biological soil crusts

Algae and mosses are not only two of the familiar communities in the process of desert vegetational succession, but also have the highest biomass in biological soil crusts. Meanwhile, being the pioneer plants, algae and mosses are involved in the establishment of biological soil crusts, which have great importance in arid environments and play a major role in desert ecosystems, such as being the indicator of the vegetation type, soil-holding, preventing erosion by water and wind, and sand fixation. This paper reviews the advances in the study of algae and mosses in arid and semi-arid areas. It mainly describes the ecological functions of algae and mosses including their influences on water cycle, circulation of substances, and community succession. In addition, the relationships between algae and mosses are discussed. Finally, some suggestions are proposed for the research orientations of algae and mosses in biological soil crusts. Ecologically, algae and mosses have significant ecological importance in arid areas, especially in those areas where environmental problems are becoming increasingly serious.     

Progress in the study of algae and mosses in biological soil crusts

Algae and mosses are not only two of the familiar communities in the process of desert vegetational succession,but also have the highest biomass in biological soil crusts.Meanwhile,being the pioneer plants,algae and mosses are involved in the establishment of biological soil crusts,which have great importance in arid environments and play a major role in desert ecosystems,such as being the indicator of the vegetation type,soil-holding,preventing erosion by water and wind,and sand fixation.This paper reviews the advances in the study of algae and mosses in arid and semi-arid areas.It mainly describes the ecological functions of algae and mosses including their influences on water cycle,circulation of substances,and community succession.In addition,the relationships between algae and mosses are discussed.Finally,some suggestions are proposed for the research orientations of algae and mosses in biological soil crusts.Ecologically,algae and mosses have significant ecological importance in arid areas,especially in those areas where environmental problems are becoming increasingly serious.     

Responses of the desert green algae,Chlorella sp. to drought stress

Desert algae are important components of the desert soil crust and play an essential role in desert soil ecosystem development. Owing to their special habitat, desert algae are often exposed to harsh environments, among which drought represents the most common stress. Green algae are considered to have drought tolerance potential; however, only a few studies have investigated this. In this study, we selected the green alga Chlorella sp., which was isolated from desert soil, and studied its physiological response to polyethylene glycol (PEG) 6000-induced drought stress. The results showed that drought stress can affect the photosynthetic efficiency of Chlorella sp., reduce its water retention ability, and destroy its ultrastructure. However, Chlorella sp. can cope with drought stress through a series of physiological regulatory strategies. Protective strategies include quick recovery of photosynthetic efficiency and increased chlorophyll content. In addition, induced synthesis of soluble proteins, lipids, and extracellular polysaccharide (EPS), and accumulation of osmotic regulatory substances, such as sucrose and trehalose, also contribute to improving drought tolerance in Chlorella sp. This study provides insights into the physiological responses of Chlorella sp. to drought stress, which may be valuable for understanding the underlying drought adaptation mechanisms of desert green algae.     

Soil microalgae and cyanobacteria: the biotechnological potential in the maintenance of soil fertility and health

Abstract

The soil microbiota plays a major role in maintaining the nutrient balance, carbon sink, and soil health. Numerous studies reported on the function of microbiota such as plant growth-promoting bacteria and fungi in soil. Although microalgae and cyanobacteria are ubiquitous in soil, very less attention has been paid on the potential of these microorganisms. The indiscriminate use of various chemicals to enhance agricultural productivity led to serious consequences like structure instability, accumulation of toxic contaminants, etc., leading to an ecological imbalance between soil, plant, and microbiota. However, the significant role of microalgae and cyanobacteria in crop productivity and other potential options has been so far undermined. The intent of the present critical review is to highlight the significance of this unique group of microorganisms in terms of maintaining soil fertility and soil health. Beneficial soil ecological applications of these two groups in enhancing plant growth, establishing interrelationships among other microbes, and detoxifying chemical agents such as insecticides, herbicides, etc. through mutualistic cooperation by synthesizing enzymes and phytohormones are presented. Since recombinant technology involving genomic integration favors the development of useful traits in microalgae and cyanobacteria for their potential application in improvement of soil fertility and health, the merits and demerits of various such advanced methodologies associated in harnessing the biotechnological potential of these photosynthetic microorganisms for sustainable agriculture were also discussed.     

Estimation of growth and exopolysaccharide production by two soil cyanobacteria,Scytonema tolypothrichoides and Tolypothrix bouteillei as determined by cultivation in irradiance and temperature crossed gradients

Two filamentous cyanobacteria of the genera Scytonema and Tolypothrix were reported to be effective for stabilizing soil in arid areas due to the production of significant amounts of extracellular polysaccharides (EPS). These EPS may also have applications in the biotechnology industry. Therefore, two cyanobacterial species, Scytonema tolypothrichoides and Tolypothrix bouteillei were examined using crossed gradients of temperature (8–40°C) and irradiance (3–21 W m^?2) to identify their temperature and irradiance optima for maximum biomass and EPS production. According to their reported temperature requirements, both strains were considered mesophilic. The optimum growth range of temperature in S. tolypothrichoides (27 to 34°C) was higher than T. bouteillei (22–32°C). The optimum irradiance range for growth of S. tolypothrichoides (9–13 W m^?2) was slightly lower than T. bouteillei (7–18 W m^?2). Maximum EPS production by S. tolypothrichoides occurred at similar temperatures (28–34°C) as T. bouteillei (27–34°C), both slightly higher than for maximum growth. The optimum irradiance range for EPS production was comparable to that for growth in S. tolypotrichoides (8–13 W m^?2), and slightly lower in T. bouteillei (7–17 W m^?2). The Redundancy Analysis confirmed that temperature was the most important controlling factor and protocols for field applications or for mass cultivation can now be developed.     

3个树种对不同程度土壤干旱的生理生化响应

利用盆栽试验和采用人工浇水后持续自然耗水的方法,研究了3年生山杏(Prunus sibirica)、沙棘(Hippophae rhamnoides)、油松(Pinus tabulaeformis)对土壤干旱胁迫的生理生化响应过程。结果表明:随着干旱程度加剧,3个树种叶片相对含水量(LRWC)及叶绿素(Chl)含量持续下降,细胞膜透性逐渐增大;其中,以山杏和沙棘变化幅度较大,油松最小;3个指标发生显著变化的土壤相对含水量(RWC)临界值,油松为54.7%、山杏和沙棘分别为46.7%和48.4%。3个树种超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)与过氧化物酶(POD)两种抗氧化酶活性,随RWC降低先升高后降低;维持较高抗氧化酶活性的RWC范围,油松为32.9%—76.4%、山杏和沙棘分别为46.7%—77.9%和35.8%—78.2%;在不同土壤干旱程度下,油松的抗氧化酶活性水平高于沙棘和山杏。3个树种两种渗透调节物质脯氨酸(Pro)与可溶性糖(Ss)的含量随RWC降低而增加,油松的增加幅度大于山杏和沙棘;Pro含量的增加速度大于Ss含量。结论:3个树种可通过渗透调节、抗氧化酶活性升高等途径增强对干旱逆境的耐受性和适应性;3个树种的抗旱能力为油松>沙棘>山杏。     

黄连木对干旱胁迫的生理响应

研究了自然干旱条件下黄连木（Pistacia chinensis Bunge）的生理变化。结果表明,随土壤含水量的减少,叶绿素b含量、光合速率、叶片相对含水量与叶水势均下降;叶绿素a和可溶性糖含量、叶绿素a和b的比值及总叶绿素含量呈现上升的趋势;超氧化物歧化酶活性先升后降;丙二醛含量干旱胁迫前期升高,后期变化不明显;净光合速率、气孔导度和蒸腾速率随土壤含水量的减少逐步降低。气孔和可溶性糖含量都是影响黄连木光合速率的关键因子,干旱胁迫前12d光合速率主要受气孔限制,之后为非气孔限制。干旱胁迫前期渗透调节物质以可溶性糖为主,干旱胁迫较重时脯氨酸含量急剧升高,与可溶性糖同时起渗透调节作用。     

干旱胁迫对小麦幼苗根系生长和叶片光合作用的影响

采用水培试验方法,以2个耐旱性不同的小麦品种(敏感型望水白和耐旱型洛旱7号)为材料,研究了干旱胁迫对小麦幼苗根系形态、生理特性以及叶片光合作用的影响,以期揭示小麦幼苗对干旱胁迫的适应机制.结果表明： 干旱胁迫下,2个小麦品种幼苗的根系活力显著增大,而根数和根系表面积受到抑制;干旱胁迫降低了望水白的叶片相对含水量,提高了束缚水/自由水,而对洛旱7号无显著影响;干旱胁迫降低了2个小麦品种叶片的叶绿素含量、净光合速率、蒸腾速率、气孔导度和胞间CO2浓度,但随胁迫时间的延长,洛旱7号的叶绿素含量和净光合速率与对照差异不显著;干旱胁迫降低了2个小麦品种幼苗的单株叶面积,以及望水白的根系、地上部和植株生物量,而对洛旱7号无显著影响.水分胁迫下,耐旱型品种可以通过提高根系活力、保持较高的根系生长量来补偿根系吸收面积的下降,保持较高的根系吸水能力,进而维持较高的光合面积和光合速率,缓解干旱对生长的抑制.     

园艺植物水分胁迫生理及耐旱机制研究进展

概述了园艺植物在水分胁迫下的生理生化,分子反应及耐旱机制研究进展,并指出尚需进一步研究的问题。     

Microscopic green algae and cyanobacteria in high-frequency intermittent light

The effects of fluctuations in the irradiance onScenedesmus quadricauda, Chlorella vulgaris andSynechococcus elongatus were studied in dilute cultures using arrays of red light emitting diodes. The growth rate and the rate of photoinhibition were compared using intermittent and equivalent continuous light regimes in small-size (30 ml) bioreactors. The CO₂ dependent photosynthetic oxygen evolution rates in the intermittent and continuous light regimes were compared for different light/dark ratios and different mean irradiances. The kinetics of the electron transfer reactions were investigated using a double-modulation fluorometer. The rates of photosynthetic oxygen evolution normalized to equal mean irradiance were lower or equal in the intermittent light compared to the maximum rate found in the equivalent optimal continuous light regime. In contrast, the growth rates in the intermittent light can be higher than the growth rate in the equivalent continuous light. Photoinhibition is presented as an example of a physiological process affecting the growth rate that occurs at different rates in the intermittent and equivalent continuous lights. The difference in the dynamics of the redox state of the plastoquinone pool is proposed to be responsible for the low photoinhibition rates observed in the intermittent light.     

杨柴对高CO2浓度和土壤干旱胁迫的响应

毛乌素优势植物杨柴 (HedysarummongolicumTurcz.)对高CO2 浓度和土壤干旱胁迫响应的研究结果表明 :干旱胁迫可使杨柴根系伸长 ,根生物量、地径、主茎高和茎生物量下降 ;高CO2 浓度使杨柴根和茎生物量明显增加 ,CO2 的“施肥效应”显著 ,干旱使CO2 的“施肥效应”减弱。同时 ,土壤干旱胁迫使杨柴的根 /冠比增加 ,说明在土壤干旱胁迫情况下根的生长比地上部分 (茎 )的生长更活跃 ,有利于提高杨柴在干旱沙漠地区的固沙作用 ;CO2 浓度升高和土壤干旱胁迫均使杨柴叶片的水势下降 ,叶片水势的下降使叶片细胞对水分的束缚力增强 ,从而减少植物蒸腾耗水 ,有利于提高水资源的利用效率     

Phycochromes b and d: their occurrence in some phycoerythrocyanin-containing blue-green algae (cyanobacteria)

Abstract
Phycochromes b and d, two types of photoreversibly photochromic pigments previously extracted from the blue-green alga Tolypothrix distorta , which contains phycoerythrocyanin, have now been found in three Anabaena strains also containing phycoerythrocyanin. Tests for the presence of phycochromes b and d in a number of blue-green algae lacking phycoerythrocyanin have been negative. The possibility that phycochrome b-type absorbance changes are due to changes in the α-subunit of phycoerythrocyanin is discussed.     

Practices of biological soil crust rehabilitation in China: experiences and challenges

Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) are a central component of dryland ecosystems. However, they are highly vulnerable to disturbance and natural recovery may be slow. Therefore, finding ways to enhance the reestablishment of biocrusts after disturbance has been of great interest to researchers. This article provides a review of the laboratory cultivation and field inoculations of biocrust materials in China (mostly published in Chinese). Larger filamentous cyanobacteria (e.g. Microcoleus) are relatively easy, although slow, to grow in culture compared to other biocrust components. Thus, most researchers have focused their efforts on the cyanobacteria and a few species of mosses that are also easily grown but at smaller scale. For all the studies, a small amount of biocrust material was collected and its biomass enhanced under controlled conditions. However, the enhancement was done using various methods and techniques in different regions. These materials were then applied to disturbed field sites, again with various methods. Results show that keeping the inoculated soil surface wet for some time period after inoculation was crucial for restoration success. Cyanobacterial establishment was improved by installing automatic sprinkling using micro‐irrigation techniques and/or physical structures that reduced sediment moving onto the inoculated area. Experimental applications in China showed that cyanobacteria can be successfully inoculated at a large scale (hundreds of ha). Moss inoculation, on the other hand, was only accomplished at a small scale (several m²). To assess whether biocrust restoration can enhance the establishment of a self‐supporting ecosystem, further research is needed on how inoculation affects vegetation diversity and structure and ecological processes.     

Nursing biocrusts: isolation,cultivation, and fitness test of indigenous cyanobacteria

Biological soil crusts (biocrust) are microbial communities that develop at the soil surface of drylands and play an important role in erosion control and fertility. Soil surface disturbance from a broad range of natural and human processes (e.g. fire, livestock grazing, off‐road traffic) cause significant losses in biocrust cover and associated ecosystems services. Hence, biocrust restoration is emerging as an important intervention strategy to rehabilitate degraded dryland soils. In a multistep process, we designed protocols for the establishment of “microbial nurseries” to produce photosynthetic cyanobacterial inoculum for biocrust seeding at scale. We first report on the strategy for isolation, directly from the target site, of a large culture collection of cyanobacteria that included multiple representatives of the five most common biocrust taxa. After genetic pedigreeing of these isolates, we could select those that best matched field populations genetically for scale‐up cultivation. We then developed protocols for effective cyanobacterial biomass production to obtain sufficient inoculum. This was followed by conditioning treatments (hardening off) to preacclimate this inoculum to the stressful conditions expected in the field. Finally, we show that the inoculum obtained was fit to thrive in its original soil under natural outdoor conditions if sufficient water was available. We repeated this process successfully for four sites, two in the hot Chihuanuan desert and two in the cooler Great Basin Desert, and on two textural types of soils in each. The cyanobacterial biocrust nursery approach represents a versatile, viable, and safe tool for the rehabilitation of dryland soils.     

干旱胁迫及复水对海滨木槿光合作用和生理特性的影响

选择2年生海滨木槿扦插苗为材料,通过自然干旱20 d而后复水(21 d),研究了其在干旱和复水过程中的光合作用和生理特性.结果表明:经过20 d的干旱胁迫,在土壤含水量仅为5.9%的情况下海滨木槿全部成活,干旱胁迫显著降低了海滨木槿的净光合速率,实测值最高仅为1.1μmol·m^-2·s^-1,最大光化学效率为对照的84.3%.可溶性蛋白和抗氧化酶同时积累,稳定细胞渗透势并清除干旱造成的脂膜过氧化物质.复水7d后光合速率升高至对照的57.3%,超氧化物歧化酶和过氧化氢酶活性随着丙二醛含量下降而下降,复水21 d后,海滨木槿抗氧化酶、可溶性蛋白和叶片相对含水量均恢复至对照水平,干旱处理总生物量虽显著降低,但根冠比显著提高.海滨木槿具有极强的耐旱能力,是适用于沿海地区景观改良和道路绿化的重要树种.     

Biogenic synthesis of gold nanoparticle using fractioned cellular components from eukaryotic algae and cyanobacteria

In the present investigation fractioned cellular components like intact pigment bearing thylakoids/chloroplasts, carotenoids, protein, polysaccharides were extracted from the cyanobacterium Anabaena sphaerica and green alga Chlorococcum infusionum. Each of these extracts was used separately in search for efficient reducing agents during gold nanoparticle (GNP) production in pro‐ and eukaryotic algal cell systems. The whole biomass and extracted compounds or cellular structures were exposed in 25 mg L^?1 aqueous hydrogen tetrachloroaurate solutions separately at room temperature. Isolated viable chloroplasts from C. infusionum and thylakoids from A. sphaerica were found to be able to reduce gold ions. The protein extracts of both strains were also able to synthesize GNP at 4°C. Extracted polysaccharides of the two strains responded differently. Polysaccharides from A. sphaerica showed positive response in GNP synthesis, whereas no change was observed for C. infusionum. The carotenoids extracts from both strains acted like an efficient reducing agent. Initially the reducing efficiency of these extracted components was confirmed by the appearance of purple color in biomass or in experimental media. The GNPs, synthesized within the biomass were extracted by sonication with sodium citrate. The UV–vis spectroscopy of extracted purple colored suspensions and media showed the absorption bands at approximately 530–540 nm indicating a strong positive signal of GNP synthesis. Transmission electro n microscopy determined the size and shapes of the particles. The X‐ray diffraction study of the synthesized GNP revealed that the 2θ values appeared at 38.2°, 44.5°, 64.8° and 77.8°. Amongst all, isolated thylakoids and chloroplast showed only spherical GNP production with variable size range at pH 4. Monodisperse GNPs were also synthesized by isolated thylakoids and chloroplast at pH 9. A detailed morphological change of gold treated biomass was revealed employing scanning electron microscopy. The fluorescent property of gold loaded cells was studied by fluorescence microscopy.     

土壤干旱胁迫对毛鸡骨草幼苗生长及某些生理特性的影响

以毛鸡骨草幼苗为试验材料,测定毛鸡骨草在不同水分条件下的生长状况和相关的生理生化指标,结果表明:随着干旱胁迫的增加,毛鸡骨草幼苗的株高、茎粗、复叶长等呈递减趋势,根直径、须根数呈递增趋势;根、叶片脯氨酸含量和叶片可溶性糖的含量均呈先降低再上升的趋势,水势随干旱胁迫的加剧呈先上升后降低的趋势,根系活力随干旱胁迫的加剧呈递减趋势。但是,在严重干旱胁迫下,各生长指标的增长均受到明显的抑制。     

Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria): prospects and perspectives

Summary Photosynthetic, prokaryotic blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) occur in a wide range of natural habitats of diverse ionic composition and as such, represent an important source of biological material for biosolar energy conversion programs using saline water. The gasvacuolate, filamentous Spirulina is grown in seminatural culture in Lake Texcoco, Mexico, as a major source of single-cell protein for animal nutrition. Pilot-scale trials in other areas of the world have also demonstrated the suitability of blue-green algae, including Spirulina, for growth under brackish conditions. The carbohydrate accumulation profiles of blue-green algae differ in isolates from freshwater, marine and hypersaline habitats, with a trend towards sucrose or trehalose accumulation in stenohaline freshwater strains grown in media containing NaCl, while euryhaline and marine forms frequently accumulate glucosylglycerol. Many halotolerant isolates from hypersaline habitats accumulate glycinebetaine in response to osmotic stress. This knowledge may provide scope for future improvement in the N₂ fixation rates of blue-green algae in saline media, using betaine-accumulating N₂-fixing strains in preference to other, saltsensitive isolates.     

Differential physiological and antioxidative responses to drought stress and recovery among four contrasting Argania spinosa ecotypes

Our study was undertaken to ascertain whether the change of the water status and the activation of superoxide dismutase and their isoenzymes in Argan tree can support edaphic drought tolerance and its recovery under rehydration. An experiment was conducted on four contrasting ecotypes of Argania spinosa plants: two contrasting coastal ecotypes (Admine (Adm) and Rabia (Rab)) and two contrasting inland ecotypes (Aoulouz (Alz) and Lakhssas (Lks)). Drought stress significantly decreased the leaf water potential and stomatal conductance in the four contrasted ecotypes. In terms of biochemical responses, significant accumulation of carbonyl groups, hydrogen peroxide and superoxide radical has been recorded in the leaves of stressed plants reflecting oxidative stress. In parallel, the activities of total superoxide dismutase (SOD) and their isoenzymes Cu/Zn-SOD, Cu/Zn-SOD and Fe-SOD were also found to have increased to scavenging ROS and protecting the cell against induced oxidative stress. The recovery kinetics of A. spinosa, as a response to rehydration, were significant and rapid. According to the traits having the most discriminating power, both inland ecotypes (Lks and Alz) showed a better upregulation of its protective mechanisms compared to coastal ecotypes (Rab and Adm). All these adaptive traits make the inland ecotypes as an elite resource of drought tolerance and might become the new focus of domestication research of argan tree in arid and semi-arid environments.     

古尔班通古特沙漠生物结皮不同发育阶段中藻类的变化

通过在古尔班通古特沙漠南缘相同的地貌部位,选择裸沙、藻结皮、地衣结皮和苔藓结皮4种不同演替阶段中的生物结皮,研究了藻类的种类组成、优势种和生物量的变化.结果表明:(1)在结皮的不同演替阶段,藻类种类组成不同,其常见物种有一定的差异,如裸沙中藻类常见种是脆杆藻2(Fragilaria sp.2)、威利颤藻(Oscillatoria willei)和奥克席藻(Phormidium okenii),藻结皮的常见种是小聚球藻(Synechococcus parvus)、颗粒常丝藻 (Tychonema granulatum)、韧氏席藻(Phormidium retzli);同时在不同发育阶段亦存在一些特有种.(2)在裸沙发育到成熟生物结皮的过程中,藻类的优势物种也发生相应的变化.裸沙、藻结皮、地衣结皮和苔藓结皮的优势种分别是脆杆藻1(Fragilaria sp.1)、具鞘微鞘藻(Microcoleus vaginatus)、具鞘微鞘藻、眼点伪枝藻(Scytonema ocellatum)或集球藻(Palmellococcus miniatus).(3)藻类生物量在生物结皮不同演替阶段差异极显著(P<0.01),在裸沙中藻类生物量最低,随着生物结皮的逐渐发育,藻类生物量明显升高,地衣结皮最高,约是裸沙的8.3倍,当发育至苔藓结皮时,藻类生物量又有所下降.(4)在裸沙中基本为松散的沙粒,随着生物结皮的演替,丝状种类占明显的优势,尤其是具鞘微鞘藻,另外真菌菌丝和苔藓假根分别在地衣结皮和苔藓结皮中起着重要作用.