Emergency measures to control the spread of diseases caused by the human immunodeficiency virus

Since the middle of 1996 the growth of HIV-infected persons and AIDS morbidity are registered in Russia. In 1997 4,300 new cases of HIV infection were registered, which exceeded 1.6 times the total number of cases for the period of 1987-1996. The highest morbidity rate was observed in the cities of the European part of Russia: Kaliningrad (west), Krasnodar and Rostov-on-Don (south), Nizhny Novgorod and Moscow (center). AIDS patients and HIV-infected persons were registered in 73 out of 89 regions of the country. 90% of HIV-infected persons were drug users in 1997. In 1992-1997 the number of drug addicts increased 3.5 fold and young women in 1987-1997, 6.5 fold. 71 HIV-infected children were registered were born from HIV-infected mothers at present time. The article deals with the main provisions of the federal laws aimed at the prevention of the spread of HIV infection in Russia and characterizes scientific research on AIDS. Evidence is presented that the early detection of HIV-infected persons, as well as rendering timely medical and social assistance to such persons, makes it possible to increase their mean survival time and check the spread of human immunodeficiency virus.     

Assessing Risk-Based Policies for Pretrial Release and Split Sentencing in Los Angeles County Jails

Court-mandated downsizing of the CA prison system has led to a redistribution of detainees from prisons to CA county jails, and subsequent jail overcrowding. Using data that is representative of the LA County jail system, we build a mathematical model that tracks the flow of individuals during arraignment, pretrial release or detention, case disposition, jail sentence, and possible recidivism during pretrial release, after a failure to appear in court, during non-felony probation and during felony supervision. We assess 64 joint pretrial release and split-sentencing (where low-level felon sentences are split between jail time and mandatory supervision) policies that are based on the type of charge (felony or non-felony) and the risk category as determined by the CA Static Risk Assessment tool, and compare their performance to that of the policy LA County used in early 2014, before split sentencing was in use. In our model, policies that offer split sentences to all low-level felons optimize the key tradeoff between public safety and jail congestion by, e.g., simultaneously reducing the rearrest rate by 7% and the mean jail population by 20% relative to the policy LA County used in 2014. The effectiveness of split sentencing is due to two facts: (i) convicted felony offenders comprised ≈ 45% of LA County’s jail population in 2014, and (ii) compared to pretrial release, split sentencing exposes offenders to much less time under recidivism risk per saved jail day.     

Absence of Antiretroviral Therapy and Other Risk Factors for Morbidity and Mortality in Malaysian Compulsory Drug Detention and Rehabilitation Centers

Background

Throughout Asia, people who use drugs are confined in facilities referred to as compulsory drug detention and rehabilitation centers. The limited transparency and accessibility of these centers has posed a significant challenge to evaluating detainees and detention conditions directly. Despite HIV being highly prevalent in this type of confined setting, direct evaluation of detainees with HIV and their access to medical care has yet to be reported in the literature.

Methods

We evaluated the health status of 100 adult male detainees with HIV and their access to medical care in the two largest Malaysian compulsory drug detention and rehabilitation centers holding HIV-infected individuals.

Results

Approximately 80% of all detainees with HIV were surveyed in each detention center. Most participants reported multiple untreated medical conditions. None reported being able to access antiretroviral therapy during detention and only 9% reported receiving any HIV-related clinical assessment or care. Nearly a quarter screened positive for symptoms indicative of active tuberculosis, yet none reported having been evaluated for tuberculosis. Although 95% of participants met criteria for opioid dependence prior to detention, none reported being able to access opioid substitution therapy during detention, with 86% reporting current cravings for opioids and 87% anticipating relapsing to drug use after release. Fourteen percent of participants reported suicidal ideation over the previous two weeks.

Conclusion

We identified a lack of access to antiretroviral therapy in two of the six compulsory drug detention and rehabilitation centers in Malaysia designated to hold HIV-infected individuals and found significant, unmet health needs among detainees with HIV. Individuals confined under such conditions are placed at considerably high risk for morbidity and mortality. Our findings underscore the urgent need for evidence-based drug policies that respect the rights of people who use drugs and seek to improve, rather than undermine, their health.     

HIV infection in children perinatally infected

During the period from 1987 to the middle of 1996 only 20 children were born of HIV-infected women, while during the following 1.5 years the number of such children were 59, the maximum number of seropositive children being registered in Kaliningrad and the Kaliningrad region, in the Krasnodar Territory, Stavropol and Nizhny Novgorod (altogether 46 children). Out of 79 children born of HIV-infected mothers during the whole period of the epidemic, 8 children died. Out of the children born before 1995 who remained alive, 9 children were struck off the register after 3 years of observation due to the absence of HIV infection. By the end of 1997 63 children were registered, the majority of them born in 1996-1997.     

Epidemic strains of different plasmidovars of bacteria from Shigella genus

Plasmid analysis of 46 strains of Shigella species confirmed the view about heterogeneity and variability of plasmids composition in these microorganisms. On the other hand,the presence of low-molecular, multiplicated extrachromosomal replicons, which were stable, was shown. Using them, it was possible to divide the Shigella isolates into two major plasmidovars, characterize them according to repertoire of the most stable plasmids and determine epidemically significant variants during sporadic and outbreak incidence of shigellosis in towns Nizhny Novgorod and Kstovo (Nizhny Novgorod region).     

Mitochondrial Heteroplasmy in Marsh Frog (Pelophylax ridibundus Pallas, 1771)

Russian Journal of Genetics - The population features of nuclear and mitochondrial genomes of P. ridibundus Pallas, 1771 and related species of green frogs from Nizhny Novgorod and Sverdlovsk...     

HIV/AIDS among Inmates of and Releasees from US Correctional Facilities, 2006: Declining Share of Epidemic but Persistent Public Health Opportunity

Because certain groups at high risk for HIV/AIDS (human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) come together in correctional facilities, seroprevalence was high early in the epidemic. The share of the HIV/AIDS epidemic borne by inmates of and persons released from jails and prisons in the United States (US) in 1997 was estimated in a previous paper. While the number of inmates and releasees has risen, their HIV seroprevalence rates have fallen. We sought to determine if the share of HIV/AIDS borne by inmates and releasees in the US decreased between 1997 and 2006. We created a new model of population flow in and out of correctional facilities to estimate the number of persons released in 1997 and 2006. In 1997, approximately one in five of all HIV-infected Americans was among the 7.3 million who left a correctional facility that year. Nine years later, only one in seven (14%) of infected Americans was among the 9.1 million leaving, a 29.3% decline in the share. For black and Hispanic males, two demographic groups with heightened incarceration rates, recently released inmates comprise roughly one in five of those groups'' total HIV-infected persons, a figure similar to the proportion borne by the correctional population as a whole in 1997. Decreasing HIV seroprevalence among those admitted to jails and prisons, prolonged survival and aging of the US population with HIV/AIDS beyond the crime-prone years, and success with discharge planning programs targeting HIV-infected prisoners could explain the declining concentration of the epidemic among correctional populations. Meanwhile, the number of persons with HIV/AIDS leaving correctional facilities remains virtually identical. Jails and prisons continue to be potent targets for public health interventions. The fluid nature of incarcerated populations ensures that effective interventions will be felt not only in correctional facilities but also in communities to which releasees return.     

New experience in informational and educational work

During the World Day of AIDS Control (December 1, 1999) the global action "General Class Hour" was conducted in Nizhny Novgorod in all general-education and specialized secondary schools, colleges and professional schools. 197,600 students of 169 general-education schools and 28 specialized schools, as well as 6,200 teachers and 300 volunteers conducting "General Class Hour", took part in the action.     

The migratory activity of HIV-infected people in the northwestern region and the routes of the possible spread of the infection]

The epidemic situation in HIV infection in the northwestern region of this country has been analyzed. The ways of the spread of HIV infection among the infected persons, residents of the St. Petersburg region, Kaliningrad, Novgorod and Murmansk, have been studied. The infection is transmitted mainly through sexual contacts, both homosexual and heterosexual. High migration activity of HIV-infected persons, homo- and heterosexuals, has been established, and a great number of unknown (casual) sexual contacts among them was noted. The results of these observations may be useful in the prognostication of the epidemic situation in HIV infection not only in the northwestern region, but also beyond its boundaries, and later in the optimization of screening.     

The detection of viral hepatitis markers in HIV-infected patients

The determination of markers of virus hepatitides B, C and D in 63 registered HIV-infected persons was made. The use of Russian and foreign EIA systems permitted the detection of markers of virus hepatitides 30.1% of HIV-infected persons, including 26.3% of children. Markers of hepatitis B virus were found to occur in children and adults with the same frequency. Out of 65 persons registered in the Center, 3 persons (4.6%) were drug addicts; of these, 2 were found to have antibodies to antigens of hepatitis viruses. Such persons constituted 3.8% of the total number of HIV-infected persons. Among 8 newly detected and registered HIV-infected adults, 2 were found to have antibodies to hepatitis B virus (of these, 1 used drugs intravenously).     

Polymorphism of the mtDNA Control Region in Reindeer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rangifer tarandus</Emphasis>) from the Mainland of the Northeastern Part of European Russia

Based on an analysis of the polymorphism of nucleotide sequences (n = 103) of the hypervariable fragment of the mtDNA control region (D-loop), the genetic diversity of wild and domestic reindeer from the mainland of the European Northeast of Russia (eastern parts of Arkhangelsk oblast, Komi Republic, and the Nenets Autonomous Okrug) was studied. Relatively high values of genetic diversity indices were detected. Phylogenetic analysis showed close relationships between reindeer of the study region and those of the tundra zone of Siberia. The influence of domestic reindeer on the formation of the genetic diversity of the wild reindeer was considered as negligible. Genetic lines belonging to an extinct group of forest reindeer from the Nizhny Novgorod region were found among the modern groups of reindeer from the European Northeast of Russia.     

Deaths of detainees in the custody of US forces in Iraq and Afghanistan from 2002 to 2005

In light of the large number of detainees who continue to be taken and held in US custody in settings with limited judicial or public oversight, deaths of detainees warrant scrutiny. We have undertaken the task of reviewing all known detainee deaths between 2002 and early 2005 based on reports available in the public domain. Using documents obtained from the Department of Defense through a Freedom of Information Act request, combined with a review of anecdotal published press accounts, 112 cases of death of detainees in United States custody (105 in Iraq, 7 in Afghanistan) during the period from 2002 to early 2005 were identified. Homicide accounted for the largest number of deaths (43) followed by enemy mortar attacks against the detention facility (36). Deaths attributed to natural causes numbered 20. Nine were listed as unknown cause of death, and 4 were reported as accidental or natural. A clustering of 8 deaths ascribed to natural causes in Iraq in August 2003 raises questions about the adequacy and availability of medical care, as well as other conditions of confinement that may have had an impact on the mortality rate.     

Plasmid analysis of cadmium- and penicillin-resistant strains of staphylococci isolated in maternity hospitals]

The plasmid analysis of a collection of the staphylococci isolated was made in the obstetric hospitals of Nizhny Novgorod and Arzamas in 1986-1989. It revealed the presence of large complex plasmids with a molecular weight of 22 MD carrying the determinants of resistance to penicillins and cadmium and mercury ions in polyresistant strains. Conjugation transfer of the plasmid even between the staphylococci of different species was performed under experimental conditions. It was suggested that occurrence of the strains carrying the complex cadmium-penicillinase plasmid was due to violation of the sanitary or ecological requirements.     

Species composition and ecological peculiarities of the blood-sucking mosquito genus Ochlerotatus (communis species group) (Diptera: Culicidae) of the Novgorod Province

Eleven mosquito species of the communis species group (genus Ochlerotatus, family Culicidae) were found in the Novgorod Province as a result of nine-year investigations (1996-2004). Ochlerotatus impiger, O. nigrinus, and O. sticticus are recorded in the Novgorod Province for the first time.     

The prevention of HIV/AIDS among injection drug abusers and women in the sex business in the city of Kharkiv

A steady increase of the number of persons with drug addiction has been noted both on Kharkov and Kharkov Province. Since 1996 a considerable number of HIV-infected persons has been detected among injecting drug users (80-82% of them infected parenterally). Rapid evaluation, carried out in 1997 within the project "Harm Reduction", served as the basis for the creation of the Charity Fund "Scarlet Ribbon" collaborating with the UNAIDS Representation in the Ukraine and other international organizations. The information and educational activity of the Fund among injecting drug users is presented. The necessity of organizing additional stationary and mobile exchange stations of the syringe is pointed out.     

Ecologocenotical characteristics of the herbaceous cover along the highways of Nizhny Novgorod

A total of 86 species of vascular plants have been found in the studied territories along the highways of Nizhny Novgorod. Asteraceae, Poaceae, and Fabaceae play a great role in the taxonomic structure of herbs. Cyperaceae and Rosaceae are less important. Among the ecologocenotical groups, meadow species form the basis of the herbaceous cover, but their participation diminishes at distances of 1–3 m from the highways. Herbaceous plants include also flowering meadow species, which play an indispensable aesthetic role.     

Gene pool structure of Russian populations from the European part of Russia inferred from the data on Y chromosome haplogroups distribution

Population structure of Russian population from the European part of Russia was investigated by analyzing the distribution of 23 SNP makers of Y chromosome in Russian populations from Kaluga oblast, Yaroslavl' oblast, Vladimir oblast, Nizhny Novgorod oblast, Pskov oblast, Tula oblast, Belgorod oblast, and Novgorod oblast. In the populations studied a total of 14 Y-chromosome haplogroups (E, F*, I, J, K*, N3a, N2, P*, R1*, R1a1, C3, H, and A) were discovered, of which haplogroups R1a1, I, and N3a were the prevailing. Analysis of Phi statistics in the populations grouped in accordance to the dialect subdivision of the Russian language, showed the absence of statistically significant differences between Russian population groups. Analysis of the Y-chromosome markers distribution patterns among Russian population (10 population groups) in comparison with the population of Germany (11 population groups) revealed statistically significant differences between the gene pools of Slavs (Russians and Poles) and Teutons (Germans).     

Health and Human Rights Concerns of Drug Users in Detention in Guangxi Province,China

Background

Although confinement in drug detoxification (“detox”) and re-education through labor (RTL) centers is the most common form of treatment for drug dependence in China, little has been published about the experience of drug users in such settings. We conducted an assessment of the impact of detention on drug users'' access to HIV prevention and treatment services and consequent threats to fundamental human rights protections.

Methods and Findings

Chinese government HIV and anti-narcotics legislation and policy documents were reviewed, and in-depth and key informant interviews were conducted with 19 injection drug users (IDUs) and 20 government and nongovernmental organization officials in Nanning and Baise, Guangxi Province. Significant contradictions were found in HIV and antinarcotics policies, exemplified by the simultaneous expansion of community-based methadone maintenance therapy and the increasing number of drug users detained in detox and RTL center facilities. IDU study participants reported, on average, having used drugs for 14 y (range 8–23 y) and had been confined to detox four times (range one to eight times) and to RTL centers once (range zero to three times). IDUs expressed an intense fear of being recognized by the police and being detained, regardless of current drug use. Key informants and IDUs reported that routine HIV testing, without consent and without disclosure of the result, was the standard policy of detox and RTL center facilities, and that HIV-infected detainees were not routinely provided medical or drug dependency treatment, including antiretroviral therapy. IDUs received little or no information or means of HIV prevention, but reported numerous risk behaviors for HIV transmission while detained.

Conclusions

Legal and policy review, and interviews with recently detained IDUs and key informants in Guangxi Province, China, found evidence of anti-narcotics policies and practices that appear to violate human rights and imperil drug users'' health.     

Study of hydrocarbon oxidizing microorganisms from deep groundwater of the Puchezh-Katunki impact structure

The presence of viable hydrocarbon-oxidizing microorganisms has been shown in the under-ground waters exposed by the Vorotilovskaya deep well (the Puchezh-Katunki astrobleme, 75 km north of Nizhny Novgorod, 1900- and 3200-m deep) using the method of chromatography-mass spectrometry of specific biomarkers of the microbial cell wall and the classical methods of bacteriology. Several microbial species have been isolated in pure culture and identified. Two bacillary species, Bacillus pumilus KTB-2 and Bacillus subtilis KTB-4, were maintained in pure cultures at reinoculations. The effects of mineralization and aeration of the medium on the growth characteristics of Bacillus pumilus KTB-2 in batch culture have been studied.     

The cyclicity and prognosis of shigellosis morbidity in Russia

The epidemic process (EP) of shigellosis morbidity proceeds in cycles. As shown in this study, cyclic curves are the sum of polyharmonic fluctuations, being the axis of EP. The duration of one cycle is 18 years, and its configuration is stably retained for a long time. In Nizhny Novgorod shigellosis morbidity is strongly correlated with air temperature is summer at the peak of cyclic rises and moderately correlated in the years of low morbidity. In some cities of the Russian Federation fluctuations of air temperature have been found of occur synchronously with disturbances of the magnetic field of the earth. The character and stability of EP cycles provide grounds for the prognostication of shigellosis morbidity. The current cycle will end in the year 2000, and then natural preconditions for a new cyclic rise will appear.