New discoveries and interpretations of hominid fossils and artifacts from Vindija Cave, Croatia

Beginning with excavations during the 1970s, Vindija Cave (Croatia) has yielded significant Middle and Upper Paleolithic fossil and archaeological finds. We report on seven recently identified hominid fossils, a newly associated partial hominid cranial vault from level G(3), nine possible bone retouchers, and a revised interpretation of the Mousterian artifact assemblage from the site. This new information reinforces our knowledge of the complex biocultural phenomena revealed in unit G and earlier deposits at Vindija. Six of the new hominid fossils derive from stratigraphic units G and I, while one lacks exact provenience. All specimens preserving diagnostic anatomy are from Neandertals. One of the postcranial remains, a radius fragment which exhibits Neandertal-like anatomy, comes from level G(1)and is congruent with the previously established association of Neandertals with an early Upper Paleolithic industry at the site. The partial cranial vault represents the most complete Neandertal from Vindija. The possible retouchers derive from unit G. Our analysis of these artifacts suggests that both percussion and pressure techniques may have been used by Neandertals in the final stage of tool production (retouching). This paper also presents a revision of the artifact analysis for late Mousterian level G(3). We separated raw materials into two main groups due to the differing ways that the materials fracture and the differing morphology of the debitage. The use of raw material in level G(3)is different from earlier Middle Paleolithic levels at Vindija. This indicates that the G(3)late Neandertals were making choices regarding source material somewhat more like the Upper Paleolithic people at the site. When interpreted within a larger regional framework, the Vindija archaeological and hominid fossil remains demonstrate a complex, mosaic pattern of biocultural change in the Late Pleistocene of south-central Europe.     

Chin morphology and sexual dimorphism in the fossil hominid mandible sample from Klasies River Mouth

The site of Klasies River Mouth (KRM) in South Africa has produced a small sample of early Upper Pleistocene hominid remains that have been a focus for discussions of the origins of modern humans. Despite certain primitive characteristics exhibited by these fossils, proponents of a single recent origin have attributed them to early modern humans. Critics of this hypothesis have emphasized the significance of the archaic features evident in this sample, including the absence of pronounced chins among the mandibular specimens. This study compares the size range and chin morphology exhibited by the KRM mandibles with that of Neandertals, Upper Pleistocene humans, and recent humans. The extreme sexual dimorphism documented among the KRM fossils reflects the presence of a very small individual, and previous efforts to classify the KRM sample as archaic on the basis of their robusticity have failed to address the significance of this diminutive hominid. While each KRM fossil falls within the 95% envelope of variability established for chin development in a comparative modern sample, a similarly low frequency of pronounced chins is very unlikely to be found in any recent human population. The morphological pattern of the KRM mandibles is clearly distinct from that of Neandertals and of recent humans. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Hominid cranial remains from upper Pleistocene deposits at Aduma, Middle Awash, Ethiopia

The Upper Pleistocene localities of Aduma and Bouri have yielded hominid fossils and extensive Middle Stone Age (MSA) archaeological assemblages. The vertebrate fossils recovered include parts of four hominid crania from Aduma and a complete right parietal from Bouri. Archaeological associations and radiometric techniques suggest an Upper Pleistocene age for these hominids. The more complete cranium from Aduma (ADU-VP-1/3) comprises most of the parietals, the occipital, and part of the frontal. This cranium is compared to late Middle and Upper Pleistocene hominid crania from Africa and the Middle East. The Aduma cranium shows a mosaic of cranial features shared with "premodern" and anatomically modern Homo sapiens. However, the posterior and lateral cranial dimensions, and most of its anatomy, are centered among modern humans and resemble specimens from Omo, Skhul, and Qafzeh. As a result, the Aduma and Bouri Upper Pleistocene hominids are assigned to anatomically modern Homo sapiens.     

Excavations at new sites of early man in Murcia: Sima de las Palomas del Cabezo Gordo and Cueva Negra del Estrecho del Río Quípar de la Encarnación

Two new sites with hominid, palaeolithic and faunal remains from the late Middle and early Upper Pleistocene in Murcia, S.E. Spain, are presented in the light of recent ongoing excavations and multidisciplinary research. The article outlines the origins and development of the research project with reference to aspects of field strategy and methodology, and comments upon the significant hominid and middle palaeolithic findings.     

Role of carnivores in the accumulation of the Sterkfontein Member 4 hominid assemblage: a taphonomic reassessment of the complete hominid fossil sample (1936-1999)

New taphonomic data on the Sterkfontein Member 4 (South Africa) fossil hominid assemblage are presented. The previous estimate of hominid individuals represented in the deposit (45) is increased to 87. New minimum numbers of hominid skeletal elements are provided, and incidences of bone surface damage inflicted by prehistoric biological agents are summarized. The hominid sample from Member 4 is composed predominately of gnathic remains and has a paucity of postcrania. This dearth of postcrania limits, to some extent, inferences about the formation of the Sterkfontein assemblage. However, carnivore tooth marks on some fossil specimens and an overall broad similarity in patterns of skeletal part representation between Sterkfontein and primate bone assemblages created by extant carnivores suggest that carnivores did have some involvement in the accumulation of the fossil hominid assemblage. Thus, this study provides support for the “carnivore‐collecting hypothesis” of Brain (Brain [ 1981 ] The Hunters or the Hunted? Chicago: University of Chicago Press), which implicates large carnivores as prominent collecting agents of hominid body parts in Sterkfontein Member 4. Evidence of bone surface damage is, however, too scant to make confident inferences about specific carnivore taxon/taxa involved in hominid bone collection at the site. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Recent human evolution in East Asia and Australasia.

In both East Asia and Australasia arguments for evolutionary continuity between middle-late Pleistocene hominid populations and modern Homo sapiens are of long standing. In both regions, however, problems of chronological distribution, dating and preservation of hominid skeletal materials provide an effective barrier to extending regional sequences back to 'archaic' Homo sapiens or Homo erectus. The earliest securely dated modern Homo sapiens in East Asia are currently represented by Zhoukoudian Upper Cave at a minimum of 29 ka BP. In Australia skeletal remains of modern Homo sapiens have been dated to 26 ka BP, with archaeological materials at 38 to 50 ka BP. Late Pleistocene human skeletons from sites like Coobool Creek are morphologically and metrically outside the range of recent Australian Aboriginal populations. Similarly Liujiang and the Upper Cave crania can be distinguished from recent East Asian 'Mongoloids'. Evolutionary change within the Holocene needs to be taken into consideration when the evidence for regional evolutionary continuity is considered.     

Florisbad and human population succession in Southern Africa.

The human cranium recovered at Florisbad in 1932 is compared with other Sub-Saharan African hominid remains from Broken Hill, the Omo and Klasies River Mouth. The Florisbad frontal is very broad, but despite this breadth and differences in zygomatic form, there is a definite resemblance to archaic Homo sapiens from Broken Hill. There is also some similarity to both Omo I and Omo II, while fragmentary remains from Klasies River are more lightly built and hence more modern in appearance. These impressions are strengthened by measurement and statistical analysis, which demonstrates that Florisbad and Broken Hill are distant from recent African populations. Even if Florisbad is less archaic than the earlier (Middle Pleistocene?) hominid, it is not noticeably Bushman-like. New dates suggestive of early Upper Pleistocene antiquity also place Florisbad securely in a lineage containing Broken Hill, and there is no evidence to support special ties with any one group of living Africans.     

李家沟遗址的石器工业

本文介绍河南新密李家沟遗址发现的石制品, 并进行简要讨论。该遗址包含了从旧石器时代晚期一直到新石器时代多个文化阶段的遗存。石器工业在不同文化阶段表现出不同的特点。除了旧石器晚期较早阶段的石片石器组合和旧石器时代晚期之末的细石器组合之外, 还在新石器早期文化乃至裴李岗文化阶段的文化遗存中发现数量较多的打制石器。其中最值得关注的是与典型细石器共存的磨刃石锛与陶片。通过对石制品的初步观察可知, 打制石器并不只存在于旧石器时代, 而是延续到新石器早期甚至可能裴李岗文化时期, 打制石器仍然在继续使用。这种情况说明, 李家沟以及中原地区旧、新石器时代的石器工具的变化过渡是一种逐渐变化的过程。     

The Petralona dentition—Hominid or cave bear?

Four teeth were recovered from the Petralona cave site in Greece. These specimens were considered to be hominid remains and have become part of the dental data base for the Pleistocene hominids of Europe. SEM analysis of the anamel structure of these remains reveals an enamel prism pattern which is not hominid. A walled hexagonal prism was obtained which is representative of the carnivores.Subsequent analysis of a fragment of enamel from the Petralona hominid cranium revealed a keyhole enamel prism, typical of modern man, while analysis of a number of cave bear teeth revealed an identical walled hexagonal prism, as was found in the four isolated teeth.The conclusion is that the four isolated teeth are those of the Pleistocene cave bear which frequently populated the cave.     

Upper pleistocene human remains from Vindija cave,Croatia, Yugoslavia

Human remains excavated from Vindija cave include a large although fragmentary sample of late Mousterian-associated specimens and a few additional individuals from the overlying early Upper Paleolithic levels. The Mousterian-associated sample is similar to European Neandertals from other regions. Compared with earlier Neandertals from south central Europe, this sample evinces evolutionary trends in the direction of Upper Paleolithic Europeans. Compared with the western European Neandertals, the same trends can be demonstrated, although the magnitude of difference is less, and there is a potential for confusing temporal with regional sources of variation. The early Upper Paleolithic-associated sample cannot be distinguished from the Mousterian-associated hominids. We believe that this site provides support for Hrdli?ka's “Neandertal phase” of human evolution, as it was originally applied in Europe.     

Human skeletal remains from the cave of Hearths,Makapansgat, Northern Transvaal

A detailed study has been made of the oldest South African Upper Pleistocene hominid remains found in Acheulian context in a well-stratified sealed cave deposit, the Cave of Hearths, Makapansgat, Northern Transvaal. Possibly 55,000 years of age, the remains comprise a juvenile right mandibular body with teeth, and part of a right radius. The mandible is highly robust, markedly prognathous, has a slight to moderate bony chin, an appreciable planum alveolare, a low supraspinous foramen, large alveolar part with big tooth roots, parallel upper and lower borders, a superior transverse torus and poorly developed genial apophysis. The teeth are fairly large, narrow and elongate; M₂ is smaller than M₁; both molars have a +5 cusp pattern, and the first molar shows moderate taurodontism. There is good evidence that the jaw shows congenital lack of M₃: after the Chinese Lantian jaw, this is the second oldest hominid mandible and the first African fossil man with this feature. The radius has a relatively large head atop a disproportionately narrow neck; marked angulation of neck on shaft; and a strongly developed bicipital tubercle. The remains show a cluster of features which ally them with African Neandertaloids and earlier hominids of N.W. Africa. These geographically widespread African remains may represent a transitional population between H. erectus and H. sapiens neanderthalensis. This population has been called by Campbell, this author and others H. sapiens rhodesiensis (after the first-discovered specimen from Broken Hill): to this taxon the Cave of Hearths bones are tentatively assigned.     

Middle Palaeolithic burial is not a dead issue: the view from Qafzeh, Saint-Césaire, Kebara, Amud, and Dederiyeh.

Inferences of purposeful Middle Palaeolithic (MP) burial are almost universally accepted, despite published arguments that the pre-1960s discoveries are equally well explained by natural processes. In the modern human origins debate (perhaps the most hotly disputed question in palaeoanthropology) inferences of MP burial are crucial in arguments for an early Upper Pleistocene emergence of modern humans. The present paper contributed to that debate by re-examining a number of post-1960s excavations of MP hominid remains. Because these were excavated with meticulous attention to depositional circumstances and stratigraphic context, most palaeoanthropologists consider these inferences of purposeful burial to be based on irrefutable evidence. This paper focuses on the reasoning behind such claims, especially the assumption that articulated sketetal material is prima facie evidence for deliberate burial. First it reviews a range of processes operating in caves and rockshelters that condition the probability of articulated skeletal material preserving without hominid intervention. Processes such as deposition, decomposition, and disturbance are inherently more variable in caves and rockshelters than is usually acknowledged. The first section concludes that purposeful protection is not necessary to account for the preservation of articulated skeletal remains. The second part of the paper examines the published record from Qafzeh, Saint-Césaire, Kebara, Amud and Dederiyeh, where the majority of the remains claimed to have been buried are fragmented, incomplete, and disarticulated. This re-examination suggests that in all of the post-1960s cases of putative burial, the hominid remains occur in special depositional circumstances, which by themselves are sufficient to account for the preservation in evidence at these sites. This conclusion severely weakens arguments for purposeful burial at the five sites. Moreover, the equivocal nature of the evidence in the more recent cases renders even less secure the similar claims made for discoveries of hominid skeletal remains at La Chapelle-aux-Saints, Le Mousterier, La Ferrassie, Teshik-Tash, La Grotte du Régourdou, Shanidar, and several others. Finally, by highlighting the equivocal nature of the evidence, this paper underscores the ongoing need for palaeoanthropologists to specify as wide a range of taphonomic processes as possible when interpreting the archaeological record. This will aid in producing robust inferences, and will bring about increasingly accurate knowledge of when hominids became human.     

Upper pleistocene fossil hominids from Sri Lanka

Between 1978 and 1983 hominid skeletal remains were collected from the cave sites of Batadomba lena and Beli lena Kitulgala in Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon). These are the most ancient specimens of anatomically modern Homo sapiens found thus far in South Asia, radiocarbon dates placing them in the Upper Pleistocene. Morphometric analysis of the remains of some 38 individuals from the two sites indicates that these populations were characterized by medium stature, moderate to pronounced cranial and postcranial robusticity, medium-size permanent tooth crown measurements, prognathic alveolar facial proportions, and low incidence of osseous and dental pathological conditions. Comparisons of these ancient Sri Lankans with other prehistoric skeletal series from South Asia and elsewhere support the hypothesis that muscular-skeletal robusticity was a significant physical adaptation of earlier hunting-foraging populations. A trend towards reduction of sexual dimorphism and development of more gracile body form and smaller teeth appears to have accelerated with the socioeconomic transition to food-production strategies involving agriculture and pastoralism and refinement of technologies for food procurement and preparation, as documented by morphometric studies of later prehistoric inhabitants of South Asia.     

The Big Deal about Blades: Laminar Technologies and Human Evolution

Despite the rapid expansion of archaeological knowledge of the Paleolithic over the past several decades, some generalized interpretive frameworks inherited from previous generations of researchers are remarkably tenacious. One of the most persistent of these is the assumed correlation between blade technologies, Upper Paleolithic industries, and anatomically (and behaviorally) modern humans. In this paper, we review some of the evidence for the production of early blade technologies in Eurasia and Africa dating to the late Lower and the Middle Paleolithic. The basic techniques for blade production appeared thousands of years before the Upper Paleolithic, and there is no justification for linking blades per se to any particular aspect of hominid anatomy or to any major change in the behavioral capacities of hominids. It is true that blades came to dominate the archaeological records of western Eurasia and Africa after 40,000 years ago, perhaps as a consequence of increasing reliance on complex composite tools during the Upper Paleolithic. At the same time, evidence from other regions of the world demonstrates that evolutionary trends in Pleistocene Eurasia were historically contingent and not universal. [Middle Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic, blade technology, human evolution, hominid behavior and capacities]     

The fossil fauna from an Upper Pleistocene site in Jordan

The fossil fauna from an Upper Pleistocene habitation site in Jordan is described. Seven species of mammal are represented, three of these being recorded for the fist time from Jordan. The faunal remains are compared with those from Mount Cannel and other Pleistocene sites in the Near East. It is suggested that the site was occupied during an early inter- stadial of the last glaciation when savannah conditions prevailed.     

The environmental contexts of early human occupation of Georgia (Transcaucasia)

The hominid mandible and a third metatarsal found in Dmanisi (Republic of Georgia) are accompanied by a rich faunal assemblage and a core-chopper stone tool industry. The mandible represents a somewhat isolated morphological type of Homo erectus that appears, given the combination of its primitive and advanced traits and specific dental morphology, to be a forerunner of both late H. erectus and early archaic H. sapiens. The faunal assemblage mostly consists of Villafranchian mammals, with the majority of the species assigned to an early phase of the Upper Villafranchian (Late Villanian and Early Biharian). Faunal and paleobotanical evidence as well as the depositional nature of the site indicate that hominid occupation took place in a mosaic environment of open steppe and gallery forests. Both the concentration of resources and the warm climatic conditions in the Dmanisi region at the beginning of the early Pleistocene were favorable for hominid occupation. It is possible that hominids reached the Caucasus through the Levantine corridor, and that the environment of this region allowed them to establish a stronghold and later colonize adjacent areas.     

Hominid carpal,metacarpal, and phalangeal bones recovered from the Hadar formation: 1974–1977 collections

The fossil hominid hand bone collection from the Pliocene Hadar Formation, Ethiopia, is described anatomically. These hand bones, all from A.L. (Afar Locality) 333 and 333w, constitute the largest sample of hominid manus remains thus far recovered from the Plio-Pleistocene of Africa.