The nucleoporin Nup60p functions as a Gsp1p-GTP-sensitive tether for Nup2p at the nuclear pore complex

The nucleoporins Nup60p, Nup2p, and Nup1p form part of the nuclear basket structure of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae nuclear pore complex (NPC). Here, we show that these necleoporins can be isolated from yeast extracts by affinity chromatography on karyopherin Kap95p-coated beads. To characterize Nup60p further, Nup60p-coated beads were used to capture its interacting proteins from extracts. We find that Nup60p binds to Nup2p and serves as a docking site for Kap95p-Kap60p heterodimers and Kap123p. Nup60p also binds Gsp1p-GTP and its guanine nucleotide exchange factor Prp20p, and functions as a Gsp1p guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor by reducing the activity of Prp20p. Yeast lacking Nup60p exhibit minor defects in nuclear export of Kap60p, nuclear import of Kap95p-Kap60p-dependent cargoes, and diffusion of small proteins across the NPC. Yeast lacking Nup60p also fail to anchor Nup2p at the NPC, resulting in the mislocalization of Nup2p to the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. Purified Nup60p and Nup2p bind each other directly, but the stability of the complex is compromised when Kap60p binds Nup2p. Gsp1p-GTP enhances by 10-fold the affinity between Nup60p and Nup2p, and restores binding of Nup2p-Kap60p complexes to Nup60p. The results suggest a dynamic interaction, controlled by the nucleoplasmic concentration of Gsp1p-GTP, between Nup60p and Nup2p at the NPC.     

Unique composition of plastid chaperonin-60: alpha and beta polypeptide-encoding genes are highly divergent

Molecular chaperones of the chaperonin family occur in prokaryotes and in plastids and mitochondria. Prokaryotic and mitochondrial chaperonin-60 oligomers (Cpn-60) are composed of a single subunit type (p60cpn-60). In contrast, preparations of purified plastid Cpn-60 contain approximately equal quantities of two polypeptides, p60cpn-60 alpha and p60cpn-60 beta, with slightly different electrophoretic mobilities. We have isolated cDNA clones encoding plastid p60cpn-60 alpha and p60cpn-60 beta polypeptides from Brassica napus and Arabidopsis thaliana. The unexpected degree of sequence divergence observed between p60cpn-60 alpha and p60cpn-60 beta raises questions concerning the structure of the oligomer and the functions of these polypeptides. We have also found an amino acid sequence motif within all p60cpn-60 sequences which resembles the p10cpn-10 sequences.     

p56lck protein-tyrosine kinase is cytoskeletal and does not bind to polyomavirus middle T antigen.

p56lck and p60c-src are closely related protein-tyrosine kinases that are activated by similar oncogenic mutations. We have used fibroblast cell lines that express p56lck from introduced DNA molecules to compare the subcellular localizations of p60c-src and p56lck and their abilities to bind polyomavirus middle T antigen (mT). p56lck is associated with the detergent-insoluble matrix, as defined by extraction with solutions containing nonionic detergents, whereas p60c-src is soluble under these conditions. p56lck is also associated with detergent-insoluble structures in a lymphoid cell line, LSTRA. p60c-src binds to mT, but p56lck does not bind detectably. In terms of both solubility and mT interactions, the nononcogenic p56lck more closely resembles oncogenically activated p60c-src mutants than it resembles p60c-src. Because published results show that an intact carboxy terminus is required for p60c-src to bind mT and be soluble, we tested whether the different localization and mT binding properties of p56lck and p60c-src were dictated by their different carboxy termini. A protein consisting largely of p60c-src sequences but carrying a p56lck carboxy terminus was soluble and bound to mT. We suggest that both the solubility and mT-binding properties of p60c-src not only require sequences common to the carboxy termini of p60c-src and p56lck, but also require sequences unique to the body of p60c-src.     

Genetic deletion of the tumor necrosis factor receptor p60 or p80 abrogates ligand-mediated activation of nuclear factor-kappa B and of mitogen-activated protein kinases in macrophages.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a pleiotropic cytokine known to regulate cell growth, viral replication, inflammation, immune system functioning, angiogenesis, and tumorigenesis. These effects are mediated through two different receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2 (also called p60 and p80, respectively), with p60 receptor being expressed on all cell types and p80 receptor only on cells of the immune system and on endothelial cells. Although the role of p60 receptor in TNF signaling is well established, the role of p80 is less clear. In this report, by using macrophages derived from wild-type mice (having both receptors) and mice in which the gene for either p60 (p60(-/-)), or p80 (p80(-/-)), or both (p60(-/-) p80(-/-)) receptor have been deleted, we have redefined the role of these receptors in TNF-induced activation of nuclear factor (NF)-kappa B and of mitogen-activated protein kinases. TNF activated NF-kappa B in a dose- and time-dependent manner in wild-type macrophages but not in p60(-/-), p80(-/-), or p60(-/-) p80(-/-) macrophages. These results correlated with the I kappa B alpha degradation needed for NF-kappa B activation. We also found that TNF activated c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase in a dose- and time-dependent manner in wild-type macrophages but not in p60(-/-), p80(-/-), or p60(-/-) p80(-/-) macrophages. TNF activated p38 MAPK and p44/p42 MAPK in wild-type but not in p60(-/-), p80(-/-), or p60(-/-) p80(-/-) macrophages. TNF induced the proliferation of wild-type macrophages, but for p60(-/-) and p80(-/-) macrophages proliferation was lower, and in p60(-/-) p80(-/-) it was absent. Overall, our studies suggest that both types of TNF receptors are needed in macrophages for optimum TNF cell signaling.     

Molecular basis for the rapid dissociation of nuclear localization signals from karyopherin alpha in the nucleoplasm

The yeast karyopherin heterodimer Kap60p.Kap95p facilitates nuclear import of proteins bearing a classic nuclear localization signal (NLS). The alpha subunit Kap60p binds to the NLS of cargo molecules in the cytoplasm, forming stable complexes that must ultimately dissociate in the nucleoplasm. Although Kap60p can release NLSs on its own using an autoinhibitory sequence (AIS) motif that can occupy the NLS binding site, that mechanism is too slow to support rapid nuclear import. We previously showed that the nuclear basket nucleoporin Nup2p and the exportin complex Cse1p.Gsp1p.GTP function as karyopherin release factors (KaRFs) because they can accelerate the rate of dissociation of NLSs from Kap60p. Here we dissect the molecular mechanics of their KaRF activity. We show that Cse1p accelerates dissociation of Kap60p.NLS-cargo complexes and Kap60p.Nup2p complexes by increasing the affinity of Kap60p for its AIS motif. In contrast, Nup2p uses a conserved sequence motif (VMXXRKIA) coupled to an AIS-like motif to accelerate dissociation of Kap60p.NLS complexes in a vectorial reaction mechanism. Mutation of either motif in Nup2p leads to a loss of KaRF activity and to the accumulation of Kap60p.NLS-cargo complexes in the nucleoplasm of yeast. We discuss a model whereby Nup2p, Cse1p, and Gsp1p cooperate to establish directionality in the movement of Kap60p and NLS-cargos across the nuclear pore complex.     

Cells transformed by certain strains of Moloney sarcoma virus contain murine p60.

It was previously demonstrated that the 60,000 dalton (p60) precursor-like polyprotein containing murine p30 was a constituent of the feline leukemia virus pseudotype of Moloney sarcoma virus [m1MSV(FeLV)]. It is now shown that p60 is detected in cells of five mammalian species transformed by m1MSV, indicating that p60 is specified by this genome. Moreover, little or no murine p30 is detected in the m1MSV-transformed cells, suggesting that the murine group p30 antigenic reactivity of S + L- cells is ude to p60. Pulse-chase studies in cells producing m1MSV(FeLV) show that p60 is the largest polypeptide detectable during the pulse, and that intracellular p60 is not cleaved into smaller (for example, p30) polypeptides during chase periods of up to 10 hr. The lack of cleavage of p60 is in contrast to the properties of p30 precursors detected in cells containing replicating avian or mammalian RNA tumor viruses. The inefficient cleavage of intracellular p60 and the kinetics of appearance of murine p30 in extracellular m1MSV(FeLV) suggest that p60 cleavage to p30 occurs in cells shortly before virus release. While only p60 was detected in the m1MSV-transformed cells, p60 and p70 were detected in m3MSV-transformed cells, and no immunoprecipitable polypeptides were detected in HT-1 MSV-transformed cells. The observed differences in the intracellular polypeptide expression by each of the strains of MSV suggests differences in genetic content.     

Complex formation of human T-cell leukemia virus type I p40tax transactivator with cellular polypeptides.

We examined cellular components which associate with p40tax, the viral transactivation molecule of human T-cell leukemia virus type I. Such molecules were searched by immunoprecipitation with polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies specific for p40tax. Two cellular proteins with molecular masses of 95 kDa (p95) and 60 kDa (p60) were specifically coprecipitated with p40tax from extracts of all p40tax-producing cell lines but not from p40tax-negative cell lines. The p60 component was also shown to associate with p40tax in vitro, by using radiolabel-chase experiments. Rabbit antisera specific for p60 and p95 were prepared by immunization with electrophoretically purified molecules. While anti-p95 antiserum coprecipitated p40tax, no p40tax could be identified in immunoprecipitates by using a polyclonal anti-p60 antiserum. The partial amino acid sequence of p60 demonstrated that p60 is identical to the human 60-kDa heat shock protein (a member of the chaperonin family of proteins). Although the biological significance of the complex formation of p40tax with p95 and p60 has yet to be determined, it may be that the complex formation is one of the mechanisms by which the biological activity of p40tax can be regulated.     

Purification and characterization of p93fes- and p60src-related tyrosine protein kinase activities in differentiated HL-60 leukemia cells

Two tyrosine protein kinase activities have been identified previously to be present in HL-60 leukemia cells during induction of granulocytic and monocytic differentiation with a variety of differentiating agents. We have copurified a membrane-associated tyrosine kinase (p93) and an activity associated with both the cytosol and membrane fractions (p60). Triton X-100 extracts from HL-60 cells treated with dimethyl sulfoxide were subjected to tyrosine-agarose chromatography, polypropyl aspartamide high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and HPLC using an antiphosphotyrosine IgG-derivatized column. Overall purification was 2700-fold for p93 and 1800-fold for p60. p60 and p93 are phosphorylated exclusively on tyrosine residues and can use poly(Glu,Tyr)4:1, histone H1 and vasoactive intestinal peptide as substrates. Poly(Glu,Tyr)1:1 and poly(Glu,Ala,Tyr)6:3:1 were less effective substrates for p60 and p93. The activity of p93 was dependent on Mg2+ or Mn2+, whereas p60 was dependent on Mg2+; however, the activity of p60 was stimulated in a synergistic manner by the presence of both Mg2+ and Mn2+, whereas the activity of p93 was not enhanced further by the combination of divalent ions. Both p60 and p93 were immunoprecipitated by an anti-v-src monoclonal antibody but only p93 was immunoprecipitated by an anti-v-fps/fes antibody. V8 protease digestion of p60 revealed one major proteolytic fragment containing phosphotyrosine, whereas V8 protease digestion of p93 produced two major peptides that were phosphorylated on tyrosine residues. These results suggest that, although p93 and p60 may possess some epitopic similarities, they have distinguishing phosphorylation sites. Moreover, p93, in contrast to p60, appears to be strictly associated with granulocytic/monocytic differentiation and related to the cellular fps/fes protooncogene.     

Antiserum specific for the carboxy terminus of the transforming protein of Rous sarcoma virus

An antiserum specific for the carboxy terminus of p60src, the transforming protein of Rous sarcoma virus, was produced by immunization of rabbits with a conjugate of bovine serum albumin and the synthetic peptide NH2-Tyr-Val-Leu-Glu-Val-Ala-Glu-COOH. The carboxy-terminal six amino acids of this peptide correspond in sequence to that deduced for the carboxy terminus of the p60src of the Schmidt-Ruppin strain of Rous sarcoma virus of subgroup A. The p60src proteins of the several strains of Rous sarcoma virus and the cellular homolog of the viral transforming protein, p60c-src, comprise a polymorphic family of polypeptides. The anticarboxy-terminal serum reacted readily with the p60src proteins of three different strains of Rous sarcoma virus. In contrast, no precipitation of cellular p60c-src could be detected with this serum. This suggests that the viral p60src proteins have identical carboxy termini and that the carboxy terminus of cellular p60c-src may be different from that of viral p60src. The anticarboxy-terminal serum reacted poorly with the subpopulation of viral p60src which is present in a complex with two cellular phosphoproteins. Apparently, the presence of the two cellular proteins interferes with the recognition of p60src by the anticarboxy-terminal serum. It seems likely, therefore, that these two cellular proteins bind to the carboxy-terminal domain of p60src.     

Accelerating the rate of disassembly of karyopherin.cargo complexes

Transport of macromolecules across the nuclear pore complex (NPC) occurs in seconds and involves assembly of a karyopherin.cargo complex and docking to the NPC, translocation of the complex across the NPC via interaction with nucleoporins (Nups), and dissociation of the complex in the nucleoplasm. To identify rate-limiting steps in the Kap95p.Kap60p-mediated nuclear import pathway of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we reconstituted key intermediate complexes and measured their rates of dissociation and affinities of interaction. We found that a nuclear localization signal-containing protein (NLS-cargo) dissociates slowly from Kap60p monomers and Kap60p.Kap95p heterodimers with half-lives (t(12)) of 7 and 73 min, respectively; that Kap60p and Kap60p.NLS-cargo complexes dissociate slowly from Kap95p (t(12) = 36 and 73 min, respectively); and that Kap95p.Kap60p.NLS-cargo complexes and Kap95p.Kap60p heterodimers dissociate rapidly from the nucleoporin Nup1p (t(12) < or = 21 s) and other Nups. A search for factors that accelerate disassembly of the long-lived intermediates revealed that Nup1p and Nup2p accelerate 16- and 19-fold the rate of dissociation of NLS-cargo from Kap60p.Kap95p heterodimers; that Gsp1p-GTP accelerates > or = 447-fold the rate of dissociation of Kap60p.NLS-cargo from Kap95p; and that Nup2p and the Cse1p.Gsp1p-GTP complex independently accelerate > or = 22- and > or = 39-fold the rate of dissociation of NLS-cargo from Kap60p. We suggest that Nup1p, Nup2p, Cse1p, and Gsp1p accelerate disassembly of Kap95p.Kap60p.NLS-cargo complexes by triggering allosteric mechanisms within Kaps that cause rapid release of binding partners. In that way, Nup1p, Nup2p, Cse1p, and Gsp1p may function as karyopherin release factors (or KaRFs) in the nuclear basket structure of the S. cerevisiae NPC.     

Tip60 and p400 are both required for UV-induced apoptosis but play antagonistic roles in cell cycle progression

The histone acetyl transferase Tip60 (HTATIP) belongs to a multimolecular complex involved in the cellular response to DNA damage. Tip60 participates in cell cycle arrest following DNA damage by allowing p53 to activate p21CIP (p21) expression. We show here that Tip60 and the E1A-associated p400 protein (EP400), which belongs to the Tip60 complex, are also required for DNA damage-induced apoptosis. Tip60 favours the expression of some proapoptotic p53 target genes most likely through the stimulation of p53 DNA binding activity. In contrast, p400 represses p21 expression in unstressed cells, thereby allowing cell cycle progression and DNA damage-induced apoptosis. Tip60 and p400 have thus opposite effects on p21 expression in the absence of DNA damage. We further found that this antagonism relies on the inhibition of Tip60 function by p400, a property that is abolished following DNA damage. Therefore, taken together, our results indicate that Tip60 and p400 play distinct roles in DNA damage-induced apoptosis and underline the importance of the Tip60 complex and its regulation in the proper control of cell fate.     

Enzymatically inactive p60c-src mutant with altered ATP-binding site is fully phosphorylated in its carboxy-terminal regulatory region

Cellular src protein, p60c-src, is phosphorylated on tyrosine 527 in chicken embryo fibroblasts, and this phosphorylation is implicated in suppressing the protein-tyrosine kinase activity and transforming potential of p60c-src. To determine whether tyrosine 527 phosphorylation is dependent on p60c-src kinase activity, the ATP-binding site of chicken p60c-src was destroyed by substitution of lysine 295 with methionine. The resultant protein, p60c-src(M295), expressed either in chicken cells or in yeast, lacked detectable kinase activity. Nevertheless, tyrosine and serine phosphorylation of p60c-src(M295) overproduced in chicken cells were indistinguishable from that of authentic p60c-src. By contrast, p60c-src(M295) was not phosphorylated on tyrosine in yeast. These results suggest that a protein kinase present in chicken cells but not in yeast phosphorylates tyrosine 527 in trans, and are consistent with the possibility that this kinase is distinct from p60c-src.     

Zinc causes tyrosine phosphorylation of hippocampal p60c-src.

Zinc cations at concentrations of 0.2 mM and greater catalyzed specific phosphorylation, by ATP, of two membrane-associated proteins from rat hippocampus. These proteins, corresponding to molecular weights of 60 and 49 kDa, were phosphorylated primarily at tyrosine residues. The 60-kDa protein was identified as p60c-src by immunoprecipitation using two different p60src-specific monoclonal antibodies. The 49-kDa protein co-immunoprecipitated with p60c-src. Cyanogen bromide cleavage of p60c-src and the 49-kDa protein phosphorylated in the presence of Zn2+ gave different patterns of phosphopeptides. It is suggested that tyrosine phosphorylation of p60c-src and the p60c-src-associated 49-kDa protein may be a way of zinc participation in hippocampal neurotransmission.     

Structural basis for Nup2p function in cargo release and karyopherin recycling in nuclear import

The yeast nucleoporin Nup2p is associated primarily with the nuclear basket of nuclear pore complexes and is required for efficient importin-alpha:beta-mediated nuclear protein import as well as efficient nuclear export of Kap60p/importin-alpha. Residues 1-51 of Nup2p bind tightly to Kap60p and are required for Nup2p function in vivo. We have determined the 2.6 A resolution crystal structure of a complex between this region of Nup2p and the armadillo repeat domain of Kap60p. Nup2p binds along the inner concave groove of Kap60p, but its interaction interface is different from that employed for nuclear localization signal (NLS) recognition although there is some overlap between them. Nup2p binds Kap60p more strongly than NLSs and accelerates release of NLSs from Kap60p. Nup2p itself is released from Kap60p by Cse1p:RanGTP only in the presence of the importin-beta binding (IBB) domain of Kap60p. These data indicate that Nup2p increases the overall rate of nuclear trafficking by coordinating nuclear import termination and importin recycling as a concerted process.     

Low level of cellular protein phosphorylation by nontransforming overproduced p60c-src.

We have previously found that Rous sarcoma virus variants in which the viral src (v-src) gene is replaced by the cellular src (c-src) gene have no transforming activity. In this study, we analyzed the basis for the inability of the p60c-src overproduced by these variants to transform cells. Phosphorylations of tyrosine residues in total cell protein or in cellular 34K protein are known to be markedly enhanced upon infection with wild-type Rous sarcoma virus. We found that these tyrosine phosphorylations were only slightly increased in the c-src-containing virus-infected cells, whereas both levels were significantly increased by infection with wild-type Rous sarcoma virus, or transforming mutant viruses which are derived from c-src-containing viruses by spontaneous mutation. Phosphorylation at tyrosine 416 of p60 itself was also extremely low in overproduced p60c-src and high in p60s of transforming mutant viruses. In immunoprecipitates with monoclonal antibody, the overproduced p60c-src had much lower casein tyrosine kinase activity than did p60v-src. We previously showed that p60 myristylation and plasma membrane localization may be required for cell transformation. p60c-src was similar to transforming p60s in these properties. These results strongly suggest that the low level of tyrosine phosphorylation by overproduced p60c-src accounts for its inability to transform cells.     

Release of the export adapter, Nmd3p, from the 60S ribosomal subunit requires Rpl10p and the cytoplasmic GTPase Lsg1p

In eukaryotes, nuclear export of the large (60S) ribosomal subunit requires the adapter protein Nmd3p to provide the nuclear export signal. Here, we show that in yeast release of Nmd3p from 60S subunits in the cytoplasm requires the ribosomal protein Rpl10p and the G-protein, Lsg1p. Mutations in LSG1 or RPL10 blocked Nmd3-GFP shuttling into the nucleus and export of pre-60S subunits from the nucleus. Overexpression of NMD3 alleviated the export defect, indicating that the block in 60S export in lsg1 and rpl10 mutants results indirectly from failing to recycle Nmd3p. The defect in Nmd3p recycling and the block in 60S export in both lsg1 and rpl10 mutants was also suppressed by mutant Nmd3 proteins that showed reduced binding to 60S subunits in vitro. We propose that the correct loading of Rpl10p into 60S subunits is required for the release of Nmd3p from subunits by Lsg1p. These results suggest a coupling between recycling the 60S export adapter and activation of 60S subunits for translation.     

Role of the histone acetyl transferase Tip60 in the p53 pathway

The histone acetyl transferase Tip60 (HTATIP) shares many properties with the tumor suppressor p53 (TP53). Both proteins are involved in the cellular response to DNA damage, are subjected to proteasomal digestion following Mdm2-mediated ubiquitination, and accumulate after UV irradiation. We found here that knock-down of Tip60 affects the p53-dependent response following actinomycin D treatment, most likely because it inhibits p21 (CDKN1A) accumulation. Moreover, Tip60 is required for p53 to activate the endogenous p21 promoter, suggesting that it functions as a p53 co-activator. However, we also found that knock-down of Tip60 increases the turnover rate of p53 under normal growth conditions. Tip60 interferes with Mdm2-mediated degradation of p53, probably because it affects its subcellular localization. Taken together, our results suggest that Tip60 plays a double role in the p53 pathway: under normal growth conditions, Tip60 contributes to maintain a basal pool of p53 by interfering with its degradation; following DNA damage, Tip60 functions as p53 co-activator. That these two distinct roles are linked during the p53-dependent response is an attractive hypothesis.     

CDC37 is required for p60v-src activity in yeast.

Mutations in genes encoding the molecular chaperones Hsp90 and Ydj1p suppress the toxicity of the protein tyrosine kinase p60v-src in yeast by reducing its levels or its kinase activity. We describe isolation and characterization of novel p60v-src-resistant, temperature-sensitive cdc37 mutants, cdc37-34 and cdc37-17, which produce less p60v-src than the parental wild-type strain at 23 degrees C. However, p60v-src levels are not low enough to account for the resistance of these strains. Asynchronously growing cdc37-34 and cdc37-17 mutants arrest in G1 and G2/M when shifted from permissive temperatures (23 degrees C) to the restrictive temperature (37 degrees C), but hydroxyurea-synchronized cdc37-34 and cdc37-17 mutants arrest in G2/M when released from the hydroxyurea block and shifted from 23 to 37 degrees C. The previously described temperature-sensitive cdc37-1 mutant is p60v-src-sensitive and produces wild-type amounts of p60v-src at permissive temperatures but becomes p60v-src-resistant at its restrictive temperature, 38 degrees C. In all three cdc37 mutants, inactivation of Cdc37p by incubation at 38 degrees C reduces p60v-src-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation of yeast proteins to low or undetectable levels. Also, p60v-src levels are enriched in urea-solubilized extracts and depleted in detergent-solubilized extracts of all three cdc37 mutants prepared from cells incubated at the restrictive temperature. These results suggest that Cdc37p is required for maintenance of p60v-src in a soluble, biologically active form.     

Expression of the p60 autolysin enhances NK cell activation and is required for listeria monocytogenes expansion in IFN-gamma-responsive mice

Both peptidoglycan and muropeptides potently modulate inflammatory and innate immune responses. The secreted Listeria monocytogenes p60 autolysin digests peptidoglycan and promotes bacterial infection in vivo. Here, we report that p60 contributes to bacterial subversion of NK cell activation and innate IFN-gamma production. L. monocytogenes deficient for p60 (Deltap60) competed well for expansion in mice doubly deficient for IFNAR1 and IFN-gammaR1 or singly deficient for IFN-gammaR1, but not in wild-type, IFNAR1(-/-), or TLR2(-/-) mice. The restored competitiveness of p60-deficient bacteria suggested a specific role for p60 in bacterial subversion of IFN-gamma-mediated immune responses, since in vivo expansion of three other mutant L. monocytogenes strains (DeltaActA, DeltaNamA, and DeltaPlcB) was not complemented in IFN-gammaR1(-/-) mice. Bacterial expression of p60 was not required to induce socs1, socs3, and il10 expression in infected mouse bone marrow macrophages but did correlate with enhanced production of IL-6, IL-12p70, and most strikingly IFN-gamma. The primary source of p60-dependent innate IFN-gamma was NK cells, whereas bacterial p60 expression did not significantly alter innate IFN-gamma production by T cells. The mechanism for p60-dependent NK cell stimulation was also indirect, given that treatment with purified p60 protein failed to directly activate NK cells for IFN-gamma production. These data suggest that p60 may act on infected cells to indirectly enhance NK cell activation and increase innate IFN-gamma production, which presumably promotes early bacterial expansion through its immunoregulatory effects on bystander cells. Thus, the simultaneous induction of IFN-gamma production and factors that inhibit IFN-gamma signaling may be a common strategy for misdirection of early antibacterial immunity.