Host selection by the heteronomous hyperparasitoid Encarsia pergandiella: multiple-choice tests using Bemisia argentifolii as primary host

The ovipositional patterns of the heteronomous hyperparasitoid Encarsia pergandiella Howard (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) in the presence of its primary host Bemisia argentifolii Bellows & Perring (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), and in the presence or absence of conspecific and heterospecific secondary hosts (Encarsia formosa Gahan andEretmocerus mundus Mercet; Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) were examined to assess host species preferences. Host preferences by heteronomous hyperparasitoids may affect the relative abundance of co-occurring parasitoid species and may influence host population suppression by the parasitoid community. Four combinations of hosts were tested: (1) B. argentifolii, E. mundus, and E. formosa, (2) B. argentifolii, E. formosa, and E. pergandiella, (3) B. argentifolii, E. mundus, and E. pergandiella, and, (4) B. argentifolii, E. mundus, E. formosa, and E. pergandiella. Arrays of hosts (24) were constructed in Petri dishes using leaf disks, each bearing one host. Thirty arrays of each host combination were exposed to single females for 6 h. All hosts were dissected to determine number of eggs per host. Encarsia pergandiella parasitized E. formosa hosts as frequently as E. mundus hosts. However, E. pergandiella parasitized either of these heterospecific hosts more frequently than conspecific hosts in treatments including two secondary host species. When a third parasitoid species was included in host arrays, E. pergandiella parasitized conspecific hosts as frequently as heterospecific hosts. Developmental stage of the hosts did not significantly influence host species selection by E. pergandiella. Our results indicate that host selection and oviposition by heteronomous hyperparasitoids like E. pergandiella, vary with the composition of hosts available for parasitization, and suggest a preference for heterospecific over conspecific secondary hosts.     

几种弱选择性寄主蔬菜对烟粉虱的驱避作用

【目的】烟粉虱是茄果类蔬菜上的重要害虫,已对常用的化学农药产生了较强的抗药性。目前,利用非嗜好植物对烟粉虱的驱避作用和嗜好植物的诱集作用控制烟粉虱则受到越来越多的关注。【方法】选择芹菜、韭菜、茼蒿、香菜、葱、蒜等6种烟粉虱弱选择性寄主蔬菜,测定烟粉虱对供试蔬菜的嗅觉和视觉反应。在此基础上,筛选出非嗜性相对更强的3种蔬菜进行田间烟粉虱驱虫性测定。【结果】在室内寄主选择性测定中,烟粉虱对供试6种蔬菜的选择性均较小,其中对芹菜的选择率最低,韭菜次之,其余4种蔬菜的选择率为茼蒿香菜葱蒜;采用嗅觉选择性测定的方法测定烟粉虱对供试蔬菜的相对选择性,发现烟粉虱对芹菜的选择率最低(13.0%),韭菜次之(25.5%),其余各蔬菜的选择率大小为茼蒿(47.8%)香菜(40.2%)葱(38.5%)蒜(37.0%);烟粉虱对6种供试蔬菜颜色的选择性也存在明显的差异,其中,烟粉虱对芹菜和韭菜的选择率相对较低。在室内筛选的基础上,选择芹菜、韭菜、葱等3种蔬菜在辣椒田里进行间作驱虫实验,发现芹菜对田间辣椒上烟粉虱的驱避效果最好,驱避率达90.6%,韭菜次之(86.5%),葱的驱避效果一般。【结论】芹菜和韭菜对烟粉虱的驱避效果较好,该结论为烟粉虱的绿色防控提供了理论依据和技术支持。     

Encarsia formosa parasitizing the Poinsettia-strain of the cotton whitefly,Bemisia tabaci, on Poinsettia: bionomics in relation to temperature

Adult longevity, developmental time and juvenile mortality ofEncarsia formosa Gahan (Hymenoptera:Aphelinidae) parasitizing the Poinsettia-strain ofBemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd.) were investigated in laboratory experiments at three temperatures: 16 °C, 22 °C and 28 °C. Furthermore, the parasitoid's preference for different larval stages of the whitefly was determined at 24.5 °C. The lifespan ofE. formosa decreased with temperature from one month at 16 °C to nine days at 28 °C. A lower temperature threshold of 11 °C for adult development was found. The development of juvenile parasitoids inB. tabaci lasted more than two months at the lowest temperature, but was only 14 days when temperature was 28 °C. The lower temperature threshold for immature development was 13.3 °C, yielding an average of 207 day-degrees for the completion of development into adults. Juvenile mortality was high, varying from about 50% at 16 °C to about 30% at 22 °C and 28 °C.E. formosa preferred to oviposit in the 4th instar and prepupal stages ofB. tabaci followed by the 2nd and 3rd instars. The preference for the pupal stage was low. The parasitoid used all instars of the whitefly for hostfeeding, with no apparent differences between the stages. The average duration of the oviposition posture was four minutes. Demographic parameters were calculated from life tables constructed from the data. The intrinsic rate of increase (r _m) and the net reproductive rate (R ₀) increased with temperature from 0.0279 day⁻¹ at 16 °C to 0.2388 day⁻¹ at 28 °C and from about 12 at 16 °C to about 66 at 28 °C, respectively.     

优于单一最大熵生态位模型的混合烟粉虱生境风险评估模型

预测入侵生物的潜在地理分布、快速评估其高脆弱性区域是实现入侵生物前瞻性风险预警的重要手段。MaxEnt生态位模型是目前应用最广泛的生境风险评估方法,操作简单,预测精度较高,但模型对数据的质量和数量过分依赖。以烟粉虱Bemisia tabaci为对象,引入地理探测器显式描述评价因子的空间关联规律和贡献度,结合MaxEnt生态位模型,提出一种混合生境风险评估模型(Geo-MaxEnt),并与单一MaxEnt生态位模型进行对比。结果表明：(1)地理探测器模型显示,海拔(0.56)、土地利用(0.43)、最热月最高温度(0.36)和年平均温度(0.30),对烟粉虱的空间分布具有显著影响,各因子对烟粉虱生境的影响存在显著的差异。海拔和土地利用PD值最高,是影响烟粉虱生境的主要驱动因子。环境因子的交互作用强化了各个因子的影响力。(2)单一MaxEnt生态位和所构建的模型总体精度分别是94.86%(AUC 0.91)和98.13%(AUC 0.94),相较之下,所构建的模型精度略高,表明所构建的模型是合理的,具有高度的可靠性;(3)对于高风险区,混合模型优于MaxEnt模型,但两者在空间分布方面高度...     

Development of Encarsia bimaculata (Heraty and Polaszek) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) in Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) nymphs

Encarsia bimaculata was recently described from India as a potentially useful parasitoid of Bemisia tabaci. Its developmental biology was studied in the laboratory at 25–30 °C and 70–75% RH. Results showed that E. bimaculata is a solitary, arrhenotokous, heteronomous, autoparasitoid. Mated females laid eggs internally in B. tabaci nymphs that developed as primary parasitoids. Males developed as hyperparasitoids, either in females of their own species or in other primary aphelinid parasitoids. Superparasitism was common under cage conditions. Both sexes have an egg, three larval instars, prepupal, and pupal stages. Development from egg to adult took 12.70 ± 2.10 days for females and 14.48 ± 2.60 days for males. Individual B. tabaci nymphs were examined for E. bimaculata parasitization using three isozymes: esterase, malate dehydrogenase, and xanthine dehydrogenase. All three isozymes showed differential banding patterns that identified E. bimaculata parasitized or unparasitized B. tabaci nymphs.     

Effects of temperature on development, survival, longevity, and fecundity of the Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) predator, Axinoscymnus cardilobus (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Axinoscymnus cardilobus (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) is an important predator of Bemisia tabaci (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) that occurs in high population density of B. tabaci. Temperature among other factors is observed to play an important role in the development of arthropods. The effect of temperature on the development of A. cardilobus was studied at seven constant temperature regimes (14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 29, 32 °C). The results indicated that the duration of egg, larval and pupal stages were significantly influenced by increased temperature. The rate of development gradually increased with increase in temperature from 14 °C to 26 °C, but declined from 26 °C to 32 °C. The survival rates of different insect stages were stable at temperatures between 20 °C and 26 °C, but at extreme temperatures of 32 °C and 14 °C, a sharp decrease was evident. Ovipositional period of the female decreased when temperatures were increased from 17 °C to 32 °C. The highest fecundity of the female (225.7 eggs per female) was recorded at 23 °C. Life tables of A. cardilobus were constructed based on the experimental results at temperatures of 14–32 °C. The reproductive rate (R₀), the innate capacity for increase (r_m) and the finite rate of increase (λ) reached the maximum values at 23 °C, of 70.7, 0.059 and 1.062, respectively. The mean generation time (T) decreased with increased temperature from 17 °C to 32 °C, the highest and least values recorded at 17 °C and 32 °C were 112.7 and 38.7, respectively. These results offer valuable insight on the importation and establishment of A. cardilobus into new environments with diverse temperature regimes.     

广东朱槿曲叶病发生及传播介体烟粉虱种群组成调查

【背景】2006年我国广东地区发现由木尔坦棉花曲叶病毒(CLCu Mu V)侵染引起的朱槿曲叶病,但有关该病害在朱槿植物上的发病率、传播介体——烟粉虱隐种的组成尚未见报道。【方法】在广东省广州和清远地区对感染CLCu Mu V的朱槿植株进行抽样调查;利用mt COⅠ引物扩增鉴定烟粉虱隐种种群组成。【结果】调查表明,广州和清远地区朱槿上CLCu Mu V的发病率分别为53.98%~71.78%和38.42%~45.27%。烟粉虱种群均为MEAM1和AsiaⅡ7隐种的混合种群;广州地区烟粉虱种群中AsiaⅡ7隐种的比例为6.25%~17.71%,清远地区AsiaⅡ7隐种的比例为76.25%~89.17%。【结论与意义】随着带病植株种植范围的扩大以及可传毒烟粉虱隐种的扩散,CLCu Mu V很有可能大范围扩散流行,应做好防控监测工作。     

Establishment of papaya banker plant system for parasitoid, Encarsia sophia (Hymenoptera: Aphilidae) against Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in greenhouse tomato production

The silverleaf whitefly, Bemisia tabaci biotype B (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), is a key pest of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) and other vegetable crops worldwide. To combat this pest, a non-crop banker plant system was evaluated that employs a parasitoid, Encarsia sophia (Girault & Dodd) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) with whitefly, Trialeurodes variabilis (Quaintance) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), as an alternative host for rearing and dispersal of the parasitoid to the target pest. (a) Multi-choice and no-choice greenhouse experiments were conducted to determine host specificity of T. variabilis to papaya (Carica papaya L.) and three vegetable crops including tomato, green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), and cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.). The result showed that papaya was an excellent non-crop banker plant for supporting the non-pest alternative host, T. variabilis, whose adults had a strong specificity to papaya plants for feeding and oviposition in both multi-choice and no-choice tests. (b) The dispersal ability of E. sophia was investigated from papaya banker plants to tomato and green bean plants infested with B. tabaci, as well as to papaya control plants infested with T. variabilis; and (c) the percent parasitism by E. sophia on T. variabilis reared on papaya plants and on B. tabaci infested on tomato plants was also evaluated. These data proved that E. sophia was able to disperse at least 14.5 m away from papaya plants to target tomato, bean or papaya control plants within 48–96 h. Furthermore, E. sophia was a strong parasitoid of both T. variabilis and B. tabaci. There was no significant difference in percent parasitism by E. sophia on T. variabilis (36.2–47.4%) infested on papaya plants or B. tabaci (29–45.9%) on tomato plants. Thus, a novel banker plant system for the potential management of B. tabaci was established using papaya as a non-crop banker plant to support a non-pest alternative host, T. variabilis for maintaining the parasitoid to control B. tabaci. The established banker plant system should provide growers with a new option for long-term control of B. tabaci in greenhouse vegetable production. Ongoing studies on the papaya banker plant system are being performed in commercial greenhouses.     

Thermotolerance and gene expression following heat stress in the whitefly Bemisia tabaci B and Q biotypes

The whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) causes tremendous losses to agriculture by direct feeding on plants and by vectoring several families of plant viruses. The B. tabaci species complex comprises over 10 genetic groups (biotypes) that are well defined by DNA markers and biological characteristics. B and Q are amongst the most dominant and damaging biotypes, differing considerably in fecundity, host range, insecticide resistance, virus vectoriality, and the symbiotic bacteria they harbor. We used a spotted B. tabaci cDNA microarray to compare the expression patterns of 6000 ESTs of B and Q biotypes under standard 25 °C regime and heat stress at 40 °C. Overall, the number of genes affected by increasing temperature in the two biotypes was similar. Gene expression under 25 °C normal rearing temperature showed clear differences between the two biotypes: B exhibited higher expression of mitochondrial genes, and lower cytoskeleton, heat-shock and stress-related genes, compared to Q. Exposing B biotype whiteflies to heat stress was accompanied by rapid alteration of gene expression. For the first time, the results here present differences in gene expression between very closely related and sympatric B. tabaci biotypes, and suggest that these clear-cut differences are due to better adaptation of one biotype over another and might eventually lead to changes in the local and global distribution of both biotypes.     

The contribution of conservation biological control to integrated control of Bemisia tabaci in cotton

Integrated control systems are based on the complimentary contribution of chemical and biological control fostered by conservation of natural enemies. Yet, in the 50 years since the integrated control concept [ICC] [Stern, V.M., Smith, R.F., van den Bosch, R., Hagen, K.S., 1959. The integrated control concept. Hilgardia 29, 81–101] was introduced there are few operational programs and even fewer attempts to analyze the mechanisms that allow chemical and biological control to act in concert. The dearth of demonstrable evidence for the ICC has eroded the credibility of biological control and its usage in operational IPM plans. We used in situ life tables within an experimental design to measure and compare the contribution and interaction of biological control and insecticides as tactical components within three pest management systems for Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) in cotton. Insecticides were the key factor immediately following applications of broad-spectrum materials or one of two selective insect growth regulators (IGRs), and this mortality replaced that provided by natural enemies. Two to six weeks later, however, mortality from natural enemies, primarily predation, in the IGR regimes rebounded to the high levels observed in untreated controls and became the key factor. Mortality from natural enemies remained depressed in the broad-spectrum insecticide regime. Single IGR applications were sufficient to suppress B. tabaci populations throughout the season, while up to five broad-spectrum applications were needed to achieve comparable control. The chemical residual of IGRs was limited to several weeks, demonstrating a key role for mortality from conserved natural enemies that extended the control interval. This “bioresidual” allows for long-term, commercially-acceptable pest suppression following the use of selective insecticides. We provide a rare experimental illustration of integrated control, where chemical and biological controls “augment one another”. Our approach and methodology could be applied to demonstrate and validate integrated control in many other systems, addressing a critical need for implementation of biological control in practicing IPM systems.     

Selection of Beauveria bassiana isolates for control of the whiteflies Bemisia tabaci and Trialeurodes vaporariorum on the basis of their virulence, thermal requirements, and toxicogenic activity

As part of a 3-fold approach to select potential mycoinsecticides for whitefly control, we evaluated infectivity, thermal requirements, and toxicogenic activity of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Ascomycota: Clavicipitaceae) under laboratory conditions. Twenty-five native B. bassiana isolates and a commercially available mycoinsecticide (based on B. bassiana) were evaluated for virulence to fourth instar nymphs of sweetpotato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci, and greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum, at a concentration of 1 × 10⁷ conidia/ml. All isolates were pathogenic for both whitefly species, whereas mortality rates varied from 3 to 85%. A second series of bioassays was conducted on 10 selected isolates using four 10-fold concentrations ranging from 1 × 10⁵ to 1 × 10⁸ conidia/ml. Median lethal concentrations (LC₅₀) of the four most virulent isolates varied from 1.1 × 10⁵ to 6.2 × 10⁶ conidia/ml and average survival time (AST) of treated nymphs from 5.9 to 7.4 days. T. vaporariorum were significantly more susceptible to all B. bassiana isolates than B. tabaci. The thermal biology of the eight most virulent isolates to both whitefly species was investigated at six temperatures (10–35 °C). The colony radial growth rate was estimated from the slope of the linear regression of colony radius on time and data were then fitted to a modified generalized β function that accounted for 90.5–99.3% of the data variance. Optimum temperatures for extension rate ranged from 23.1 to 27.1 °C, whereas maximum temperatures for fungal growth varied from 31.8 to 36.6 °C. On the basis of their virulence and thermal requirements, three isolates showed promise as candidates for whitefly management in Mediterranean greenhouses. Whilst in vitro production of macromolecular compounds toxic to Galleria mellonella larvae was not a requisite for virulence, ASTs of larvae injected with Sephadex G-25 fractions from candidate isolates ranged from 1.4 to 3.7 days compared with 5–6 days for non-toxic G-25 fractions. In addition, proteinase K treatment significantly reduced their toxic activity suggesting that they were proteins and revealing the potential of these isolates to be further improved through biotechnology to kill the pest more quickly.     

瓜套棉田烟粉虱与棉蚜种群动态及竞争干扰行为研究

【目的】甜瓜和棉花均是棉蚜及烟粉虱的适宜寄主,瓜套棉种植模式为2种害虫混合危害提供了条件,该模式下哪种害虫具有竞争优势值得探讨。【方法】通过田间定点调查和室内行为学观察,研究了吐鲁番地区瓜套棉种植模式下棉蚜和烟粉虱的发生动态及竞争干扰。【结果】田间观察分别于2011和2012年进行,在瓜套棉种植模式棉花、甜瓜上,棉蚜的发生期较烟粉虱早,但随着烟粉虱田间种群数量增加,对棉蚜产生明显的干扰和竞争作用,8月下旬至9月上旬烟粉虱成为田间优势种群。室内行为观察表明,2种害虫共存状态下均表现出以烟粉虱为优势的竞争作用,主要行为表现为通过触角、足的驱赶行为和进入棉蚜活动区域干扰等。当虫量低于4头·皿~(-1)时,无论棉蚜和烟粉虱哪种昆虫先接入,相互间的影响和干扰都很少。当2种昆虫数量均增加到8头·皿~(-1)时,烟粉虱成虫以触角、足等干扰棉蚜的行为频次显著增多。不同的定殖时间下,无论棉蚜和烟粉虱哪种昆虫先接入,随着定殖时间的延长,烟粉虱通过触角、足以及进入棉蚜活动区域驱逐和干扰棉蚜的行为都呈递减的趋势。【结论】在瓜套棉种植模式下,烟粉虱较棉蚜具有显著的竞争优势。     

Evaluation of the local population of Eretmocerus mundus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) for biological control of Bemisia tabaci biotype B (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in greenhouse peppers in Argentina

Bemisia tabaci biotype B is a key pest in pepper crops in Argentina. The parasitoid Eretmocerus mundus is frequently found parasitizing this whitefly in greenhouses without pesticide applications. The present studies were carried out with the objective of evaluating control obtained with different rate and number of parasitoid releases under experimental conditions. Release rate: cages with pepper pots were positioned in an experimental greenhouse and randomly assigned to the release rate treatments (0, 1 and 3 pairs of E. mundus/plant/week with a total of three introductions). Number of releases: similar cages were assigned to the number of parasitoid introduction treatments (0, 1, 2 and 3) with the best release rate obtained in the previous trial. In both assays whitefly (adults and nymphs) and parasitoid (parasitized nymphs) population sizes in each cage were monitored weekly for a period of 10 weeks. Results suggested that the introduction of 2 E. mundus/plant/week was enough to suppress host population compared to control treatment (peaks of 7.75 adults and 58.75 nymphs/cage and 643.75 adults and 1598 nymphs/cage, respectively) (p < 0.05), with 85% of parasitism. E. mundus had to be introduced three times to achieve the best pest control (peaks of 1.17 adults and 20.33 nymphs/cage vs. 55.67 adults and 75 nymphs/cage in control treatment) with 84% of parasitism (p < 0.05). These results were then validated in a pepper crop under experimental greenhouse conditions. Whitefly population was lower in those greenhouses where E. mundus was released compared to control greenhouses (0.15 adults and 0.71 nymphs/4 leaves and 0.73 adults and 1.64 nymphs/4 leaves, respectively), with a peak of 54% of parasitism (p < 0.05). We concluded that good suppression of B. tabaci could be achieved using E. mundus under spring conditions in Argentina.     

Episyrphus balteatus as a predator of the aphidSitobion avenae on winter wheat

Rates of development ofEpisyrphus balteatus (Diptera: Syrphidae) indicate that three generations are possible during the season. Only one develops in the wheat crop. Feeding activity is highest during the night. Functional response curves for newly hatched larvae, 1 and 5 day-old larvae were determined. The high rate of reproduction and the short feeding period makeE. balteatus an excellent exploiter of a temporary habitat: a cereal aphid colony.

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Episyrphus balteatus (Syrphidae), prédateur deSitobion aveane (Aphididae) sur blé d'hiver

Résumé Les durées de développement deE. balteatus dépendent de la température. L'incubation a duré 14.2 jours à 7.5°C et 1.59 jour à 25°C. Le développement larvaire jusqu'à la dernière défécation a demandé 35.8 jours à 7.5°C, et 10.1 jours à 20°C. Seule une génération peut se développer chaque année sur blé d'hiver, car la durée totale de l'ontogenèse, dans les conditions de température des champs, est comprise entre 30 et 45 jours. Les larves s'alimentent surtout la nuit. La prédation maximale à 20°C augmente avec l'âge de la larve, depuis 2.34 pucerons du troisième stade par jour pour une larve de syrphe néonate jusqu'à 5.04 pucerons du troisième stade quand les larves ont un jour. Les consommations les plus élevées, de 38.6 et 42.7 pucerons par nuit de 7 heures, ont été obtenues avec des larves de 4 à 5 jours, élevées à 21/13°C.A 20°C, le temps consacré à l'alimentation par des larves néonates de syrphes augmente avec la taille de la proie; il passe de 63.6 min pour des pucerons du premier stade à 131.2 min pour ceux du second stade. La relation entre le poids de la larve et le nombre de pucerons consommés est linéaire.E. balteatus a besoin, pour son développement, de moins deS. avenae que deA. fabae.

     

Design and use of a simulation model to evaluate germplasm for antibiotic resistance to the greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) and the sweetpotato whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)

SARAH (Software for theAssessment of antibioticResistance toAleyrodidae inHost plants) is a deterministic simulation model of whitefly population growth based on whitefly life-history components determined on individual plants. The life-history components recorded were oviposition rate, adult survival, pre-adult survival, developmental period, and sex ratio. The simulation model serves as a tool to combine these components and to obtain a single criterion for (antibiotic) resistance. The criterion used was the decrease in simulated intrinsic population growth rate, r _s , relative the r _s value determined on a susceptible control genotype. This model-based evaluation method was tested using the greenhouse whitefly,Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westwood, on tomato and the sweetpotato whitefly,Bemisia tabaci Gennadius, on tomato, eggplant, collard, and pepper. To study its consistency over time, the evaluation method was repeated six times forT. vaporariorum on a susceptible and a resistant tomato cultivar. Simulated intrinsic population growth rate was more consistent in indicating resistance than any of the individual life-history components. Of tenL. hirsutum accessions tested for resistance toT. vaporariorum, three exhibited r _s values that were significantly lower than those for the susceptible control. In addition, on these tenL. hirsutum accessions, a significant positive correlation was observed between r _s and sex ratio (# females/# males). Four host plant species (tomato, collard, eggplant, and pepper) were evaluated for resistance toB. tabaci. All life-history components and r _s values varied among host species, while a negative r _s value was observed forB. tabaci on pepper. A high correlation was found between results from a sensitivity analysis of SARAH and results from a sensitivity analysis of a validated whitefly population simulation model by Yanoet al. (1989a). Significant correlations were found for the relationships between oviposition rate, adult survival, or pre-adult survival and r _s , indicating that none of these life-history components can be omitted from the test procedure. This model-based evaluation method offers a standardized way to quantify levels of antibiotic resistance to whiteflies and will enhance efficiency in breeding programs.     

Biological studies of the flesh flySarcophaga (Parasarcophaga) misera and its effects as a predator of the snailIndoplanorbis exustus

Attempts were made to identify a natural predator of the freshwater snailIndoplanorbis exustus, vector of schistosomiasis. Ochterlony's double immunodiffusion technique was used. The flySarcophaga (Parasarcophaga) misera was identified as a predator ofI. exustus. Various aspects of the biology of this fly and its effects as a predator of snailI. exustus were studied in the laboratory. The possible use of the larvae of this fly to controlI. exustus is discussed as an additional control measure to chemical control.      

The effect of nitrogen fertilizer applied to Euphorbia pulcherrima on the parasitization of Bemisia argentifolii by the parasitoid Encarsia formosa

More wasps of Encarsia formosa Gahan (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) were found on fertilized poinsettias, Euphorbia pulcherrima (Willd.) (Euphorbiaceae), than on non-fertilized plants. Parasitization of Bemisia argentifolii Bellows & Perring (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) by E. formosa was higher on plants treated with calcium nitrate than with ammonium nitrate or on control plants. In a no-choice test, host feeding by E. formosa was higher when hosts were on fertilized plants than when hosts were on control plants. The nitrogen content of whitefly pupae reared on plants treated with ammonium nitrate was higher than those on calcium nitrate-treated plants.Variability in the parasitization of B. argentifolii by E. formosa appears to be due to host plant-mediated differences in the whiteflies. E. formosa may be influenced by the nutritional suitability of the host, which influences whether wasps continue to oviposit, feed, or disperse.     

Stylochus tauricus,a predator of the barnacle Balanus improvisus in the Black Sea

The flatworm Stylochus tauricus Jacubova has been found associated with the barnacle Balanus improvisus Darwin, on which it feeds. The predation rate (the number of barnacles eaten by one polyclad in a month) ranges between 5–10. Inside the empty shells of B. improvisus some egg-plates of S. tauricus were observed. Pelagic Götte's larvae aged 2–3 days possess 4 lobes while those aged 7–8 days have 5 lobes. Flatworms can prey on the young of another species Balanus eburneus Gould, whereas predation on the mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis Lam. is rare. There is a direct correlation between predator abundance and prey ingested.     

Influence of predator density on nonindependent effects of multiple predator species

Interactions between multiple predator species are frequent in natural communities and can have important implications for shared prey survival. Predator density may be an important component of these interactions between predator species, as the frequency of interactions between species is largely determined by species density. Here we experimentally examine the importance of predator density for interactions between predator species and subsequent impacts on prey. We show that aggressive interactions between the predatory shore crabs Carcinus maenas and Hemigrapsus sanguineus increased with predator density, yet did not increase as fast as negative interactions between conspecifics. At low density, interactions between conspecific and heterospecific predators had similar inhibitory impacts on predator function, whereas conspecific interference was greater than interference from heterospecifics at high predator density. Thus the impact of conspecific interference at high predator density was sufficient in itself that interactions with a second predator species had no additional impact on per capita predation. Spatial and temporal variability in predator density is a ubiquitous characteristic of natural systems that should be considered in studies of multiple predator species.