A Study on the Mechanism of Nodding Initiation of the Flower Stalk in a Poppy, Papaver Rhoeas L.

A study was made to find whether the nodding of the flower stalkin a poppy, Papaver Rhoeas L., immediately after its formationwas triggered by the weight of its flower bud or by positivegeoreaction and the following results were obtained.

1. The direction of the nodding was mostly toward the inclinedside of the stalk, which was opposite the leaf, for apical flowerbuds.
2. If the weight of the flower bud at stage 1 was cancelledbyapplying a load equivalent to the bud weight, the noddingofthe stalk was not initiated.
3. The stalk at stages 1 and2 and the upper part of the stalk(bending zone), as comparedwith the basal part, at later stageswere highly deformableaccording to measurements by the bendingmethod.
4. The cellwall of highly deformable stalks was rich in hemicellulosesand that of the basal part was abundant in pectic substances.

From these results, we concluded that the initiation of thenodding in the flower stalk was caused by the weight of theflower bud and positive geotropic reaction was probably notinvolved. (Received December 22, 1980; Accepted January 26, 1981)     

Georeaction and elongation of the flower stalk in a poppy, Papaver Rhoeas L.

The geotropic response of a poppy flower stalk was studied andthe following results were obtained.

1. After formation, the stalk first grows upright showing negativegeotropic behavior, then positive behavior by growing downward,and finally after about 10 days negative behavior by standingupright followed by the opening of the flower.
2. The bendingzone of the stalk showing negative geotropic curvaturemovesacropetally from the base as the stalk ages, and finallythewhole stalk acquires negative geotropic behavior.
3. Curvatureoccurs due to enhanced elongation of the convex (upper)sideof the stalk compared with that of the concave (lower)side,and this appears to be due to differential rates of cellelongationbetween the upper and lower sides. The epidermalcell wall wasloosened more in the upper side according to stress-relaxationanalysis.
4. When the curvature disappears and the stalk growsupright again,the concave (lower) side of the zones of curvatureelongatesfaster than the convex (upper) side.
5. If the flowerbud is decapitated, the stalk quickly becomesstraight, standingupright. However, if a lanolin paste containingIAA (1 mg/plant)is applied to the cut end, the growth and movementsproceedin a manner similar to that of the control plants havingflowerbuds. On the other hand, with GA (3 mg/plant) application,thecurvature is not retained although elongation of the decapitatedstalk is restored more than 50%.

(Received October 20, 1978; )     

Variability of Flavonol Contents during Floral Morphogenesis in the Poppy Papaver somniferum L.

We studied the contents of flavonols (kaempferol and quercetin) in the meristem of vegetative and generative apices of the main plant shoot in floral Papaver somniferum L. mutants, as well as in the normal plants at successive stages of flower development. Five stages of flower development were distinguished. Flavonols (kaempferol and quercetin) were present in all flower organs at all stages of floral morphogenesis we studied. However, their contents and distribution in different organs and at different stages of flower development markedly varied. No significant differences were found in the contents of flavonols in the meristems of vegetative and generative apices of the main shoot in the lines of floral mutants, as well as between the lines with different amounts of vegetative phytomeres. In the plants with normal flower structure, the contents of flavonols (kaempferol + quercetin) sharply increased with the beginning of differentiation of flower organs, i.e. from stage 3, to reach a maximum in the open flower, when gametogenesis is terminated and fertilization takes place. The level of flavonol contents in the petals (upper part) and stamen was at a maximum at all stages of flower development, while that in the gynaecium was at a minimum. The kaempferol : quercetin ratio was shifted towards quercetin at successive stages of flower development, most significantly in the stamens. The involvement of flavonols in the regulation of floral morphogenesis at stages of flower organs differentiation and functioning is discussed.     

Epicormic Bud Development in Quercus robur L. Studies of Endogenous IAA, ABA, IAA Polar Transport and Water Potential in Cambial Tissues10

Seasonal measurements of IAA,³ made using GC-MS, ⁴ indicatedthat in Q. robur the spring initiation of cambial activity andonset of visible bud outgrowth in the canopy is preceded byan increase in cambial region IAA. The effects of notch-girdlescut into the bole indicated that IAA in the cambial region laterwas present in separate physiological pools, with only the polar-transportedfraction affecting epicormic bud outgrowth. The stage in thespring when the epicormic buds grew out coincided with an increaseboth in cambial region IAA and in the capacity of cambial explantsfor IAA polar transport. Thus the stimulus needed by the epicormicbuds to overcome inhibition by polar-transported IAA appearedto be self-generated. The observed effects of exogenous hormoneson epicormic bud outgrowth from stem explants indicated thatthis stimulus might be cytokinin. The seasonal changes detectedin cambial region ABA³ were consistent with a role for stress-inducedABA in the induction of epicormic bud dormancy after canopydevelopment during the summer. No consistent effects of standthinning on cambial region IAA, ABA, water potentials or watercontents were detected, although polar transport of exogenousIAA by cambial region explants removed in the spring was reducedby thinning. Key words: Epicormic buds, cambium, hormones     

2,4-D丁酯对罂粟(Papaver somniferum L.)保护酶活性及脂质过氧化作用的影响

罂粟(Papaver somniferum L.)花蕾期用不同浓度的2,4-D丁酯对植株进行处理,测定了4d中叶片相对含水量(RWC)、丙二醛(MDA)含量、膜相对透性及保护酶(SOD、POD)活性变化情况.结果表明:在1ml/L、2ml/L、4ml/L浓度处理下对罂粟叶片RWC影响不显著,8ml/L处理下的RWC随处理时间的延长呈显著下降趋势,第4天比第1天下降了48.7%.在各处理下MDA含量和膜相对透性的变化趋势基本一致,1ml/L、2ml/L、4ml/L处理前期下降,后期升高.8ml/L处理对MDA含量和膜相对透性的影响显著的高于其它处理,随处理时间的延长呈先升高后降低的趋势.保护酶在处理条件下随时间延长其活性有明显的变化:POD活性变化波动较大,除8 ml/L外其它处理在第2、第4天有两次上升峰,8 ml/L峰值出现在第2天,之后下降在第4天达最低.SOD活性先降低后升高,都高于对照,所有处理SOD活性在第3d最低,第4天8 ml/L处理的活性显著的高于其它处理.表明了高浓度(8 ml/L)的2,4-D能使膜脂过氧化而产生较大的损伤,其它浓度处理对膜脂过氧化及膜透性影响相对较小,表明8ml/L的2,4-D是灭杀罂粟的最适用量.     

新疆罂粟属一新变种——重瓣野罂粟

报道并描述了罂粟科一新变种--重瓣野罂粟(Papaver nudicaule var.pleiopetalum J.C.Shao,var.nov.).该变种与野罂粟的主要区别是具有重瓣花.     

Endophytic Colonisation of Opium Poppy, Papaver somniferum, by an Entomopathogenic Beauveria bassiana Strain

Beauveria bassiana strain EABb 04/01-Tip isolated from stem-borer larvae of Timaspis papaveris (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae), a serious pest of opium poppy in Spain, was shown to be able to become established endophytically in this pharmaceutical crop. Microbiological, molecular and light and electron microscopic methods were used to study fungal colonisation and to describe its mode of penetration. After inoculation with a foliar spray of conidia, microbiological methods showed 100% of plants examined 24, 48, 72 and 144 h after treatment to be colonised endophytically by the fungus, although the percentage of previously surface sterilised leaf pieces showing fungal growth was 100% at 24 and 48 h, and 80 and 75% at 72 and 144 h after treatment, respectively. The fungus was also observed in leaf pieces obtained from newly formed leaves, indicating that it could spread from treated leaves to leaves formed after fungal application. For molecular studies, a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocol was used to amplify the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 regions of the rDNA of the plant and the fungus. This procedure allowed the detection of the fungus on the surface of the leaves and also endophytically, but only at 72 h after treatment. A nucleotide BLAST search revealed that the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 sequence of strain EABb 04/01-Tip showed 100% homology with a similar sequence from Cordyceps bassiana. SEM images revealed that although numerous conidia were observed on the leaf surface, few germinated and penetrated. Intracellular colonisation by B. bassiana was not observed, but hyphae were detected growing into the xylem vessels. The fungus was found to colonise 40.5 ± 4.3% of seedlings (with two cotyledons and the two first real leaves) from seeds dressed with a fungal spore suspension. These results may have implications in the biological control of T. papaveris, including the possible systemic protection of the plant against this cynipid.     

Changes in IAA,Phenolic Compounds,Peroxidase, IAA Oxidase,and Polyphenol Oxidase in Relation to Flower Formation in Crocus sativus

Changes in levels of IAA, phenolic compounds, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, and IAA oxidase activities in the corm and the apical bud of Crocus sativusL. during bud growth and development, with special emphasis on the flowering stage, were studied. In the bud, flower formation was accompanied by enhanced activities of peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, IAA oxidase, and higher contents of phenolic compounds as well as lower levels of IAA. In the corm, during the flower formation, these enzymes showed an opposite behavior. Moreover, the contents of phenolics and IAA in the corm tissues during flower formation and growth were higher than at the other developmental stages. It may be concluded that the transition of saffron plants to flowering is correlated with peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, and IAA oxidase. Furthermore, these enzymes might exert their roles in the regulation of flowering through their participation in IAA catabolism. The hypothesis of regulation of bud development by an interaction between phenolics and the enzymes involved in IAA catabolism is discussed.     

Insecticidal activity of Poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) seed oil against cowpea weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus F.) in stored cowpea

In this study, the insecticidal effect of Poppy (Papaver somniferum) seed oil was investigated against Callosobruchus maculatus (Bruchidae) in cowpea, at different concentrations and exposure time. The Poppy seed oil at 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10?ml/kg was tested against adults of C. maculatus, and the mortality was counted after 24, 48 and 72?h of exposure. All tests were conducted at 27–30?°C and 65?±?5% r.h. The experiments were carried out based on the factorial experiment by randomized complete design with four replications. Twenty-five insects with 0–24?h old were used for each replication. The effect of Poppy seed oil on the reduction of emergence of insects in next generation (F₁) was also assayed. The results of experiments indicate the significant differences between concentrations and exposure time (p?<?0.0001), and the increase of concentrations and exposure time increased mortality. The amount of mortality at high concentrations was remarkable, and highest mortality rate (96.91%) was recorded at 10?ml/kg, after 72?h of exposure. The application of oil significantly reduced F₁ progeny production and even at lowest concentration (2?ml/kg), the amount of F₁ production was reduced more than 70%, compared with control treatment. Complete (100%) reduction in progeny production was recorded at the rates of 8 and 10?ml/kg. The results of seed germination assay showed no significant differences between control and treated seed, and no harmful effect was observed on the seed germination. These results proved that Poppy seed oil can be used as a controlling agent of storage pests, especially C. maculatus, although more detailed studies are necessary.     

Histological Studies on the Georeaction shown in the Xylem of the Main Axis of Ricinus communis L.

When the axis of castor-bean which has been fixed in a horizontalposition for some time is rotated around its longitudinal axisand is then fixed in a new horizontal position, the zone ofmucilaginous layers which was being formed (in a symmetricalcrescent shape with its thickest portion situated at the topmostpart of the xylem on the upper side), ceases further formation,and a new, less symmetrical, zone begins to form in the areawhich extends from the new upper side to the new lower one inthe direction opposite to that of rotation. The greater theangle of rotation, the further the area where the new zone ofmucilaginous layers is laid down extends; in the case wherethe horizontal axis is turned upside-down, the new zone of mucilaginouslayers is formed symmetrically in the xylem on the new upperside. Moreover, if the axis once horizontally fixed is turnedto a vertical position, the formation of mucilaginous layersstops on the old upper side and starts on the old lower one.However, formation on the lower side is soon discontinued. As a possible physiological factor for producing these results,the effect of the accommodation of protoplasm to the precedinghorizontal fixation upon the formative and metabolic responsesto the stimulation of gravitational forces is discussed.     

Phases of Development to Flowering in Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferumL.) under Various Temperatures

Development up to flowering in opium poppy (Papaver somniferumL.)has been divided into four phases from emergence to anthesiswhich mark changes in its sensitivity to photoperiod: a photoperiod-insensitivejuvenile phase (JP), a photoperiod-sensitive inductive phase(PSP), a photoperiod-sensitive post-inductive phase (PSPP) anda photoperiod-insensitive post-inductive phase (PIPP). To predictflowering time under field conditions, it is essential to knowhow these phases are affected by temperature. Plants were grownin artificially-lit growth chambers and received three differenttemperature treatments: 15/10, 20/15 and 25/20 °C in a 12h thermoperiod. Plants were transferred within each temperatureregime from a non-inductive 9 h to an inductive 16 h photoperiodorvice versaat 1–4 d intervals to determine the durationsof the four phases. Temperature did not affect the durationof the first two phases (i.e. JP lasted 3–4 d and PSPrequired 4–5 d). The most significant effect of temperaturewas on the duration of PSPP which was 28, 20 and 17 d at 15/10,20/15 and 25/20 °C, respectively. The temperature effecton PIPP was small (maximum difference of 3 d between treatments)and the data too variable to indicate a significant trend. Ourresults indicate that PSPP is the only phase that clearly exhibitssensitivity to temperature. Days to flower; opium poppy; Papaver somniferumL.; phases of flower development; photoperiod; temperature     

Corn poppy,Papaver rhoeas L.: a critical review of its botany,phytochemistry and pharmacology

Phytochemistry Reviews - Papaver rhoeas L. (Papaveraceae), commonly known as corn poppy, is a cosmopolitan weed and edible plant capable of possessing biological properties, thus positive...     

Biochemical Bases for the Loss of Basipetal IAA Transport with Advancing Physiological Age in Etiolated Helianthus Hypocotyls: Changes in IAA Movement, Net IAA Uptake, and Phytotropin Binding

Basipetal transport of [¹⁴C]IAA in hypocotyl segments isolated from various regions of etiolated Helianthus annuus L. cv NK 265 seedlings declines with increasing physiological age. This decline was the result of a reduction in both transport capacity and apparent velocity. Net IAA uptake was greater and the abilities of auxin transport inhibitors to stimulate net IAA uptake were reduced in older tissues. Net IAA accumulation by microsomal vesicles exhibited a similar behavior with respect to age. Specific binding of [³H]N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) to microsomes prepared from young and older hypocotyl regions was saturable and consistent with a single class of binding sites. The apparent affinity constants for NPA binding in microsomes prepared from young versus older tissues were 6.4 and 10.8 nanomolar, respectively, and the binding site densities for young versus old tissues were 7.44 and 3.29 picomoles/milligram protein, respectively. Specific binding of [³H]NPA in microsomes prepared from both tissues displayed similar sensitivities toward unlabeled flurenol and exhibited only slight differences in sensitivity toward 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid. These results demonstrate that the progressive loss of basipetal IAA transport capacity in etiolated Helianthus hypocotyls with advancing age is associated with substantial alterations in the phytotropin-sensitive, IAA efflux system and they suggest that these changes are, at least partially, responsible for the observed reduction of polar IAA transport with advancing tissue age.     

Identification of Indian Landraces of Opium Poppy Papaver somniferum Resistant to Damping-off and Downy Mildew Fungal Diseases

A set of 32 landraces (traditional local cultivars) of poppy Papaver somniferum originating in the Indian states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Tamilnadu, and four Indian commercial varieties were screened over four cropping seasons for their reaction to downy mildew disease caused by Peronospora arborescens and damping-off disease caused by Pythium dissotocum under both field and artificial inoculation conditions. The landrace 1018 was found to be resistant to damping-off disease and the landraces 1014 and N3 were resistant to downy mildew disease. A yield trial conducted over two seasons showed that the damping-off disease-resistant landrace 1018 was superior to all the commercial varieties in seed, morphine and/or codeine yield. The experiments provided further evidence that there is considerable genetic variability between the landraces.     

Endogenous Auxin Profile in the Christmas Rose (Helleborus niger L.) Flower and Fruit: Free and Amide Conjugated IAA

The reproductive development of the Christmas rose (Helleborus niger L.) is characterized by an uncommon feature in the world of flowering plants: after fertilization the white perianth becomes green and photosynthetically active and persists during fruit development. In the flowers in which fertilization was prevented by emasculation (unfertilized) or entire reproductive organs were removed (depistillated), the elongation of the peduncle was reduced by 20?C30%, and vascular development, particularly lignin deposition in sclerenchyma, was arrested. Chlorophyll accumulation in sepals and their photosynthetic efficacy were up to 80% lower in comparison to fertilized flowers. Endogenous auxins were investigated in floral and fruit tissues and their potential roles in these processes are discussed. Analytical data of free indole-3-acetic acid, indole-3-ethanol (IEt), and seven amino acid conjugates were afforded by LC-MS/MS in floral tissues of fertilized as well as unfertilized and depistillated flowers. Among amino acid conjugates, novel ones with Val, Gly, and Phe were identified and quantified in the anthers, and in the fruit during development. Reproductive organs before fertilization followed by developing fruit at post-anthesis were the main source of auxin. Tissues of unfertilized and depistillated flowers accumulated significantly lower levels of auxin. Upon depistillation, auxin content in the peduncle and sepal was decreased to 4 and 45%, respectively, in comparison to fruit-bearing flowers. This study suggests that auxin arising in developing fruit may participate, in part, in the coordination of the Christmas rose peduncle elongation and its vascular development.     

Relationship Between Metabolism and the Lateral Transport of IAA in Corn Coleoptiles

The lateral movement of IAA in coleoptiles of Zea mays has been investigated under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The IAA-1-¹⁴C was supplied asymmetrically to the apical end of the segment. The results were as follows: A) In air more ¹⁴C was found in the lower half of horizontal segments supplied with an upper donor than in the half opposite the donor in vertical segments. The enhanced lateral movement of ¹⁴C in geotropically stimulated segments of corn coleoptiles under aerobic conditions has thus been confirmed. B) This increased lateral movement of ¹⁴C in geotropically stimulated segments is greatly reduced, but is not completely abolished, under anaerobic conditions. C) The lateral movement of ¹⁴C in vertical segments is significantly less under anaerobic conditions than in air. D) Under anaerobic conditions, the lateral movement of ¹⁴C in horizontal segments can be reduced to the level found in vertical segments by pre-soaking the tissue in a 1 mm solution of the metabolic inhibitor sodium fluoride for 2 hours. The inhibitor has no effect on lateral movement of ¹⁴C in vertical anaerobic segments. E) In air, sodium fluoride has no effect on the lateral movement of ¹⁴C in either vertical or horizontal segments.     

野罂粟胚性愈伤组织诱导和植株再生

1 植物名称 野罂粟（Papaver nudicaule L．）。