培养介质pH和EGTA对水霉(Saprolegnia ferax)菌丝细胞肌动蛋白的分布与结构的影响

菌丝在pH 5.0—8.0介质中维持顶端生长,Rhodamin-phalloidin荧光探针显示在菌丝顶端都存在F-actin的“帽子”结构;加入EGTA到培养介质中不影响菌丝的顶端生长和actin的“帽子”结构。值得注意的是:菌丝的Rhodamin-phalloidin荧光强度大小与菌丝顶端生长速率成正比;在含有或不含有EGTA的pH5.0培养条件下,菌丝的生长速率均很低,且后部颗粒状的荧光斑点消失;在pH 3.0-4.0培养介质中菌丝生长停止,不但F-actin“帽子”结构消失,整个菌丝荧光也变得非常微弱无法观察,提示酸性pH可引起F-actin的解聚,从而导致生长速率下降甚至生长停止。     

Detection of areas of wall differentiation in fungi using fluorescent staining

Fungal colonies were stained with a fluorescent brightner, Calcofluor White M2R New. When viewed using ultraviolet light certain hyphal regions showed intense fluorescence, whereas others showed a lower intensity fluorescence. The apical 10 μm of leadingBotrytis cinerea hyphae showed intense fluorescence. Developing septa and side branches also showed this intense localised fluorescence. Calcofluor staining of hyphae and their subsequent growth illustrated the phenomenon of tip extension.     

Optical tweezer micromanipulation of filamentous fungi

Optical tweezers have been little used in experimental studies on filamentous fungi. We have built a simple, compact, easy-to-use, safe and robust optical tweezer system that can be used with brightfield, phase contrast, differential interference contrast and fluorescence optics on a standard research grade light microscope. We have used this optical tweezer system in a range of cell biology applications to trap and micromanipulate whole fungal cells, organelles within cells, and beads. We have demonstrated how optical tweezers can be used to: unambiguously determine whether hyphae are actively homing towards each other; move the Spitzenkörper and change the pattern of hyphal morphogenesis; make piconewton force measurements; mechanically stimulate hyphal tips; and deliver chemicals to localized regions of hyphae. Significant novel experimental findings from our study were that germ tubes generated significantly smaller growth forces than leading hyphae, and that both hyphal types exhibited growth responses to mechanical stimulation with optically trapped polystyrene beads. Germinated spores that had been optically trapped for 25 min exhibited no deleterious effects with regard to conidial anastomosis tube growth, homing or fusion.     

Live-cell imaging of vegetative hyphal fusion in Neurospora crassa

The process of hyphal fusion (anastomosis) in growing colonies of Neurospora crassa, stained with the membrane-selective dyes FM1-43 and FM4-64, was visualized by confocal microscopy. Time-lapse, live-cell imaging illustrated the dynamics of hyphal growth and anastomosis during its pre-contact, contact and post-contact, and post-fusion stages. Fusion-competent hyphae were morphologically distinct and exhibited remote sensing, resulting in branch initiation and/or re-direction of growth to facilitate contact between participating hyphae. A stained Spitzenk?rper was often observed where fusion-competent hyphae met. It is suggested that this structure contains secretory vesicles responsible for the delivery of cell adhesion molecules at the point of contact, cell wall synthesizing enzymes for the swelling growth of fused hyphal tips, and digestive enzymes required for fusion pore formation. Dramatic changes in cytoplasmic flow frequently occurred between the participating hyphae following fusion. After anastomosis has taken place, septa commonly formed close to the fusion site. The live-cell imaging reported here has clearly shown the complexity of the hyphal homing and fusion process. The control and consequences of repeated anastomoses within a mycelium must be as complex as the process itself.     

The fluorescence brightener Rylux BSU induces dimorphism inBasidiobolus ranarum

The fluorescence brightener Rylux BSU (RBSU) showed an affinity for polysaccharide components of cell walls and accumulated in the extension zones of hyphal apices inBasidiobolus ranarum. It inhibited the polarized growth of mycelial hyphae and induced isotropic growth resulting in spherical thick-walled cells up to 456 μm in diameter. On the inner cell wall surface, massive protuberances were formed. The cell wall and protuberances were positive in PAS and the Grocott method and stained with fluorochromes Blankophor BA, Calcofluor, Uvitex 2B, Rylux BSU and FITC-labeled WGA- and ConA-lectins. The WGA-FITC fluorescence intensity of the wall’s outermost layer, if not connected with neighbouring cells, and the fluorescence intensity of the innermost layer and of some protuberances mainly in their apical parts were on the average twice higher than the fluorescence intensity of the remaining wall material. RBSU binding to the cell wall material was stable. The process of converting from polarized to isotropic growth was reversible, depending upon contact with RBSU-containing medium. Repeated transfers of cells from RBSU-containing medium to an RBSU-free medium resulted in the development of apical swollen dumbbell-shaped cells.     

Quantification of Fungal Hyphae in Leaves of Deciduous Trees by Automated Image Analysis

An optical method to quantify the fungal hyphae within decomposing leaves of deciduous trees was developed. The plant matrix was partially destroyed under hydrolytic conditions, and fungal hyphae and cellulose residues within the leaves were stained with Calcofluor M2R. Cellulose residues were subsequently depolymerized by cellulase, and fungal hyphae were separated from the remaining plant matrix with a pressurized air-water mixture. An image analysis program to quantify the fungal hyphae was written. The program included the recognition of fungal hyphae, the elimination of stomata from the images, and the measuring of lengths of fungal hyphae. The optical method was verified by a chemical method relying on glucosamine as an indicator of fungal biomass. The fungal biomass in leaves of Fagus silvatica and Quercus petraea at early states of decomposition was 0.2 to 0.4% of the leaf weight. The biomass reached a maximum within 2 to 4 weeks (optical method, 0.5 to 0.7%; chemical method, 1 to 1.4% of the initial leaf weight) and decreased thereafter.     

Accurate and rapid viability assessment of Trichoderma harzianum using fluorescence-based digital image analysis

Fluorescence microscopy and image analysis were evaluated in order to assess the viability of Trichoderma harzianum, an economically important filamentous fungus. After the evaluation of the two most commonly used fluorochromes, acridine orange (AO) and fluorescein diacetate (FDA) as metabolic indicator stains, AO gave ambiguous results and therefore FDA was chosen. The lower stability at room temperature and fast fluorescence intensity decay (50% after only 30 s of illumination in UV light) could be overcome by the use of a digital image acquisition system including frame grabber and a video camera. Fresh (live) fungal hyphae emitted bright green fluorescence when stained with this dye (7.5 microg/L), whereas a total absence of fluorescence was observed when using sterilized (dead) fungal cells. Fresh cells were subjected to different lethal and sublethal treatments and the percentage of FDA stained fluorescent hyphae was then measured over the total hyphal area (% of FDA-stained area) by image analysis. At the same time, samples were cultivated in shake flasks in order to correlate this % of FDA-stained area with its growth rate, a functional indicator of viability. The linear correlation (r = 0.979) was: growth rate (g/L x h) = 2.25 x 10(-3) (% of FDA-stained area). This method was used to evaluate the viability of the fungus under two different fermentation conditions in a 10-L bioreactor. Estimated viable biomass during fermentation was strongly influenced by the process conditions. The use of FDA, with computer-aided quantitative image analysis, has made it possible to rapidly and reliably quantify the viability of T. harzianum.     

Growth of chitinolytic dune soil beta-subclass Proteobacteria in response to invading fungal hyphae

It has frequently been reported that chitinolytic soil bacteria, in particular biocontrol strains, can lyse living fungal hyphae, thereby releasing potential growth substrate. However, the conditions used in such assays (high bacterial density, rich media, fragmented hyphae) make it difficult to determine whether mycolytic activity is actually of importance for the growth and survival of chitinolytic bacteria in soils. An unidentified group of beta-subclass Proteobacteria (CbetaPs) was most dominant among the culturable nonfilamentous chitinolytic bacteria isolated from Dutch sand dune soils. Here we demonstrate that the CbetaPs grew at the expense of extending fungal mycelium of three dune soil fungi (Chaetomium globosum, Fusarium culmorum, and Mucor hiemalis) under nutrient-limiting, soil-like conditions. Aggregates of CbetaPs were also often found attached to fungal hyphae. The growth of a control group of dominant nonchitinolytic dune soil bacteria (beta- and gamma-subclass Proteobacteria) was not stimulated in the mycelial zone, indicating that growth-supporting materials were not independently released in appreciable amounts by the extending hyphae. Therefore, mycolytic activities of CbetaPs have apparently been involved in allowing them to grow after exposure to living hyphae. The chitinase inhibitor allosamidin did not, in the case of Mucor, or only partially, in the cases of Chaetomium and Fusarium, repress mycolytic growth of the CbetaPs, indicating that chitinase activity alone could not explain the extent of bacterial proliferation. Chitinolytic Stenotrophomonas-like and Cytophaga-like bacteria, isolated from the same dune soils, were only slightly stimulated by exposure to fungal hyphae.     

Relationship of actin organization to growth in the two forms of the dimorphic yeastCandida tropicalis

Summary Candida tropicalis is a dimorphic yeast capable of growing both as a budding yeast and as filamentous hyphae depending upon the source of the carbon used in the culture medium. The organization of F-actin during growth of the yeast form (Y-form) and the hyphal form (H-form) was visualized by rhodamine-conjugated phalloidin by using a conventional fluorescence microscope as well as a laser scanning confocal fluorescence microscope. In single cells without a bud or non-growing hyphae, actin dots were evenly distributed throughout the cytoplasm. Before the growth of the bud or hypha, the actin dots were concentrated at one site. During bud growth, actin dots were located solely in the bud. They filled the small bud and then filled the apical two-thirds of the cytoplasm of the middlesized bud. During growth of the large bud, actin dots which had filled the apical half of the cytoplasm gradually moved to the tip of the bud. In the formation of the septum, actin dots were arranged in two lines at the conjunction of the bud and the mother cell. During hyphal growth, the majority of actin dots were concentrated at the hyphal apex. A line of clustered spots or a band of actin was observed only at the site where the formation of a new septum was imminent. This spatial and temporal organization of actin in both categories of cells was demonstrated to be closely related to the growth and local deposition of new cell wall material by monitoring the mode of growth with Calcofluor staining. Treatment of both forms of cells with cytochalasin A (CA) confirmed the close relationship between actin and new cell wall deposition. CA treatment revealed lightly stained unlocalized actin which was associated with abnormal cell wall deposition as well as changes in morphology. These results suggest that actin is required for proper growth and proper deposition of cell wall material and also for maintaining the morphology of both forms of cells.Abbrevations FM fluorescence microscopy - EM electron microscopy - rh rhodamine - CA cytochalasin A - CD cytochalasin D - PBS phosphate-buffered saline - DMSO dimethylsulfoxide - GA glutaraldehyde     

天麻抗真菌蛋白对木霉菌丝的作用位点

天麻抗真菌蛋白(Gastrodia Antifungal Protein,GAFP)能强烈抑制腐生真菌菌丝的生长,在天麻限制和防止蜜环菌[Armillariella melles (Vahl.ex Fr.) Karst.]侵染球茎的防卫机制中起重要作用。本文报告GAFP抗菌机理研究的部分内容——GAFP对木霉菌丝的作用位点。用荧光试剂异硫氰酸荧光素(Fluorescein isothiocyanate,FITC)标记GAFP,试验表明,标记后的GAFP与未标记的GAFP对木霉菌丝生长均有抑制作用。在荧光显微镜下观察GAFP在木霉菌丝上的作用位点,发现被“标记GAFP”作用后的菌丝边缘有荧光,并主要集中在木霉菌丝的顶端和菌丝横隔处,表明GAFP对木霉的作用位点在菌丝的细胞壁上。     

Wall structure of the Neurospora hyphal apex: immunofluorescent localization of wall surface antigens.

Antisera have been raised in rabbits against three wall fractions from Neurospora crassa. Fractions were separated according to Mahadevan & Tatum (1965), i.e. fraction I, glucan-peptide-galactosamine complex; fraction III, laminarin-like glucan; and fraction IV, chitin. Distinct patterns of immunofluorescent staining were obtained using an indirect staining method. Hyphae stained with antiserum to fraction I showed maximum fluorescence in the apical and/or subapical regions: in both cases, fluorescence showed a sharp decrease with distance behing the subapical region. Hyphae stained with antiserum to fraction III showed faintly fluorescent tips with fluorescence increasing with distance from the tip. Hyphae stained with antiserum to fraction IV showed faint fluorescence, equivalent to levels of autofluorescence, except at the sites of hyphal fractures. Antisera were also raised against whole walls from 24 and 120 h cultures. Hyphae stained with antisera against whole walls which had previously been absorbed to remove antibodies to fractions I, III, and IV showed preferential staining of apices. The uncharacterized tip antigen(s) thus revealed was also demonstrated on immunodiffusion plates. This pattern of immunofluorescence was compared to the fluorescence of apices after staining with an optical brightener. Enzymic dissection procedures did not generally give reliable results with apices from 24 h cultures. Untreated apices appeared amorphous, while a drastic chemical treatment revealed randomly oriented microfibrils which were shown to be alpha-chitin. The apical hyphal walls were significantly thinner than those from more mature hyphal regions.     

Fungal hyphae as a source of nutrients for the leaf-cutting ant Atta sexdens

Abstract. The mutualistic fungus of leaf-cutting ants produces both ordinary hyphae and specialized ant rewards: the staphylae. Workers of Atta sexdens (L.) lived longer on diets which included nutritive staphylae than on those which provided only hyphae. However, hyphae were a better diet than sucrose solution or water alone. Small workers lived longer than large workers when receiving fungus garden, whether or not staphylae were available, probably because they are specialized to care for the garden and can exploit it. Large workers lived longer than small ones when only water was available. This may be a consequence of scale, larger workers containing proportionately more nutritional reserves in their bodies.
When starved workers were exposed to fungus for 3h, they gained weight. This weight gain represented the amount of food ingested during the test period. Workers gained 7.3 times more weight on natural fungus garden bearing staphylae than on garden with only hyphae. They gained only 1.5 times as much weight when the fungus was artificially cultured on agar. The results suggested that workers found hyphae attractive, but difficult to obtain in natural fungus gardens.
Material from hyphae and staphylae stained with a fluorescent dye was detected in worker crop contents using fluorescence microscopy. The crop contents of workers fed on staphylae fluoresced 1.14 times more than those of workers fed on hyphae.
Hyphae may provide a small source of food for workers, and the fungus as a whole may provide up to 9.0% of the respiratory energy requirements of workers, the remainder presumably being provided by plant sap.     

Relationship between fluorescein diacetate-stained hyphae and oxygen utilization, glucose utilization, and biomass of submerged fungal batch cultures.

The relationship between fungal activity and staining with fluorescein diacetate (FDA) was investigated by growing Penicillium citrinum and Rhizoctonia solani in submerged batch cultures at different initial glucose concentrations and aeration rates. A modified FDA staining method, similar to the Jones and Mollison technique (P. Jones and J. Mollison, J. Gen. Microbiol. 2:54-69, 1948), was developed to assess both total and FDA-stained hyphae. In previous studies, soil hyphae stained with FDA were considered viable. However, determination of a quantitative relationship between FDA staining and fungal activity is necessary before such an assumption can be made. Growth rates and the rate of change in the percentage of FDA-stained hyphae were significantly correlated. The regression equation calculated for the relationship was: growth rate (mg . ml-1 . h-1) = 0.34 + 1.1 (rate of change in the percentage of FDA-stained hyphae [. ml-1 . h-1]). Changes in activity as measured by O2 utilization, glucose utilization, and biomass correlated significantly with changes in the percentage of FDA-stained hyphae, although the relationships among these parameters were different for each fungal species. Fungal growth stage was also correlated with the percentage of FDA-stained hyphae. Staining was 10% or greater during fungal growth and less than 10% during the late growth, stationary, and death phases. Thus, the rate of change in the percentage of FDA-stained hyphae can be used to predict fungal activity rate changes for single fungal cultures and growth rates for mixed fungal cultures, and the growth stage can be assessed by the percentage of FDA-stained hyphae.     

The Development and Behaviour of Mycelial Strands in Merulius lacrymans (Wulf.) Fr.: II. Hyphal Behaviour during Strand Formation

The system of hyphal branching by Merulius lacrymans was observedin mycelium which had grown from a wood food-base on to glassslides during incubation in sterile moist chambers. A hierarchyof branches and sub-branches arose from the region of clampconnexions, or nodes, of relatively wide main hyphae. Therewas evidence that the sequence of branches occurring at nodesin basipetal succession represented the time sequence of branchdevelopment at any one node. Later-formed branches at any nodewere smaller than earlier branches, but such earlier branchesusually became smaller towards the tip as growth continued.Mycelial strands were built up by growth and branching of thigmo-tropicallysensitive ‘tendril’ hyphae in association with thewide main hyphae. Tendril hyphae were characteristically narrow,thin-walled hyphae arising both as later-formed branches fromthe nodes of the main hyphae and as the narrowed tips of earlierbranches. Although this branching behaviour could be seen amongstaerial hyphae growing over agar media, hyphae growing in contactwith or within the agar behaved differently and did not formstrands.     

Antifungal action of human cathelicidin fragment (LL13-37) on Candida albicans

Human cathelicidin LL37 and its fragments LL13–37 and LL17–32 exhibited similar potencies in inhibiting growth of the yeast Candida albicans. After treatment with 0.5 μM and 5 μM LL13–37, the hyphae changed from a uniformly thick to an increasingly slender appearance, with budding becoming less normal in appearance and cell death could be detected. Only the yeast form and no hyphal form could be observed following exposure to 50 μM LL13–37. LL13–37 at a concentration of 5 μM was able to permeabilize the membrane of yeast form as well as hyphal form of C. albicans since the nuclear stain SYTOX Green was localized in both forms. Mycelia treated with LL13–37 stained with SYTOX Green, but did not stain with MitoTracker deep red, indicating that the mitochondria were adversely affected by LL13–37. Bimane-labeled LL13–37 was able to enter some of the hyphae, but not all hyphae were affected, suggesting that LL37impaired membrane permeability characteristics in some of the hyphae. Reactive oxygen species was detectable in the yeast form of C. albicans cells after treatment with LL13–37 but not in the untreated cells. The results suggest that the increased membrane permeability caused by LL13–37 might not be the sole cause of cell death. It might lead to the uptake of the peptide, which might have some intracellular targets.     

Status of nuclear division in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi during in vitro development

Summary The number of nuclei in spores and along hyphae of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungiGigaspora margarita was measured in digital images of fluorescence arising from mithramycin stained cultures. Typical dormant spores (250 m diameter) contained 2000 nuclei. Eight hundred nuclei were mobilized during the first 3 days of germination. The number of nuclei in the spores nearly returned to the initial number after 22 days of hyphal growth. The average relative DNA content in the nuclei of dormant spores and in the nuclei of spores incubated for 22 days was comparable, as judged from fluorescence intensity. Hyphal elongation occurred with 460 nuclei per cm under a special set of in vitro conditions that promote extensive hyphal growth of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. We found an average total of 26000 hyphal nuclei per germinating spore after 22 days. The specific DNA polymerase inhibitor aphidicolin did not inhibit spore germination but it rapidly reduced the rate of hyphal growth and arrested growth after 4 days. No nuclei were produced de novo during this time. These results demonstrate thatG. margarita replicates nuclear DNA and undergoes nuclear division when grown in vitro even in the absence of a plant host.     

内生真菌司氏角担子菌B6对尖孢镰刀菌西瓜专化型菌株的拮抗作用

近年来,尽管西瓜产业不断发展壮大,但轮作土壤种植西瓜易产生枯萎病害导致世界范围内的西瓜严重减产。通过对峙培养实验和抑菌实验探讨了重阳木内生真菌司氏角担子菌(Ceratobasidum stevensii)B6菌株对西瓜枯萎病病原菌尖孢镰刀菌西瓜专化型(Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.Niveum,FON)的拮抗作用,并初步分析了其作用机制。平板拮抗试验的结果表明,内生真菌B6生长过程中不是通过产生抑菌带来抑制FON菌丝,而是利用自身的生长优势将FON完全覆盖。显微观察B6与FON菌丝的接触部位,发现FON菌丝外侧附着B6顶端菌丝形成的胞样结构,表明FON菌丝生长仅受到B6菌丝的抑制。抑菌试验结果显示,B6产生的挥发性物质可以抑制FON的生长和产孢,并使其菌丝分枝明显减少;B6的发酵液对FON的生长和产孢没有抑制作用。因此,推测B6主要通过释放某些挥发性物质产生拮抗作用而抑制FON的生长。     

Disruption of calcineurin catalytic subunit (cnaA) in Epichloë festucae induces symbiotic defects and intrahyphal hyphae formation

Calcineurin is a conserved calcium/calmodulin‐dependent protein phosphatase, consisting of a catalytic subunit A and a regulatory subunit B, which is involved in calcium‐dependent signalling and regulation of various important cellular processes. In this study, we functionally characterized the catalytic subunit A (CnaA) of the endophytic fungus Epichloë festucae which forms a symbiotic association with the grass host Lolium perenne. We deleted the CnaA‐encoding gene cnaA in E. festucae and examined its role in hyphal growth, cell wall integrity and symbiosis. This ΔcnaA strain had a severe growth defect with loss of radial growth and hyper‐branched hyphae. Transmission electron microscopy and confocal microscopy analysis of the mutant revealed cell wall defects, aberrant septation and the formation of intrahyphal hyphae, both in culture and in planta. The mutant strain also showed a reduced infection rate in planta. The fluorescence of mutant hyphae stained with WGA‐AF488 was reduced, indicating reduced chitin accessibility. Together, these results show that E. festucae CnaA is required for fungal growth, maintaining cell wall integrity and host colonization.     

The dynamic behavior of cytoplasmic F-actin in growing hyphae

Summary A dynamic population of cytoplasmic F-actin was observed with electroporated rhodamine phalloidin (RP) staining in growing hyphae ofSaprolegnia ferax. This central actin population was distinct from the fibrillar peripheral network previously described in chemically fixed hyphae in that it was diffuse, pervaded the entire cytoplasm and was most concentrated in the central cytoplasm 8.4 m from the tip. The peripheral network did not stain with electroporated RP. The apical concentration of central cytoplasmic actin was only present in growing hyphae and developed prior to tip extension. It co-localized with the polarized distribution of mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum in the tip, suggesting that it functions in positioning these organelles during tip growth. Within the central actin there was a consistent apical cleft which only occurred in growing hyphae and whose position predicted the direction of tip growth. This cleft was coincident with the known accumulation of apical wall vesicles, suggesting that it is either established by vesicle exclusion of the central actin network or is permeated by a portion of the in vivo unstained peripheral network. Photobleaching studies showed that in both growing and non-growing hyphae, cytoplasmic actin continually and rapidly moved from subapical regions to the tip where it accumulated. It mostly moved forward at the rate of tip growth, while some also left the tip, presumably to populate subapical regions.Abbreviations RP rhodamine phalloidin - F-actin filamentous actin - DIC Nomarski differential interference contrast - FITC fluorescein isothiocyanate