The Vascular Pattern of a Rhizomatous Ginger (Alpinia speciosa L. Zingiberaceae). 2. The Rhizome

The vascular system in the underground rhizome of Alpinia speciosaL. (Zingiberaceae) is seen to be arranged in three distinctzones. (1) An inner system of ‘scattered’ vascularbundles which serial cinematography reveals to have an axialpattern conforming to the basic ‘palm’ configuration(a system of upwardly branching leaf traces with interconnections).(2) An intermediate zone comprising a thin perforated cylinderof anastomosing vascular strands having direct contact withboth roots and inner system bundles. (3) An outer system offreely-anastomosing vascular bundles. Connexion of outer andinner system occurs in the form of extensive bridging from innersystem leaf traces as they depart obliquely between the outersystem network. The interrelation of the three systems, plus root and branchinsertion, is illustrated by means of diagrammatic three-dimensionalreconstructions. The intermediate zone is intimately associatedwith root insertions and with the inner system, and is shownto obliviate potential bottlenecks at the point of lateral branchinsertion in this sympodial rhizome system. A comparison ismade with other monocotyle-donous vascular systems. Alpinia speciosa L., shell ginger, rhizome, vascular anatomy     

Volatile essential oil constituents of Alpinia smithiae (Zingiberaceae)

The composition of leaf and rhizome essential oils of Alpinia smithiae that grow wild in the Western Ghats of Kerala (South India) was analysed by gas chromatography. The major components were beta-caryophyllene, sabinene, myrcene and 1,8-cineole in both samples, but variation in the yield of oil as well as the major components between the two plant parts was observed.     

Subcellular localization of calcium during Alpinia mutica Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) style movement

The subcellular localization of calcium in Alpinia mutica Roxb. during style movement was studied in two morphs. In the styles, Ca-antimonate precipitates (ppts) were principally located in apoplasts, with some minimal accumulation in the nucleus. At different movement, stages of movement, the ppts in the abaxial and adaxial sides changed, and no lateral gradient of ppts in the apoplast was established. The increase or decrease of ppts in the apoplast was not accompanied with equivalent changes in the cytoplasm. These results indicate that calcium could not affect the curvature by inhibiting cell elongation but may play a role in style movement by acting as a secondary messenger. EGTA-treatment affected style movement, providing further evidence supporting a role for calcium as a secondary messenger     

山姜属植物花柱卷曲性传粉机制的研究

暂性雌雄异株是一种在两性花或雌雄同株植物个体上表现出的雄蕊和雌蕊成熟时间不同而形成的暂时性雄性阶段和雌性阶段不重叠的现象。这种现象减少了自交亲和的雌雄同株和两性花种类发生自交的可能性。作系统研究了花柱郑曲性传粉机制在西双版纳姜科山姜属（Alpinia Roxb.）植物中的普遍性,这一机制使得植物通过完全的暂性异株达到了异交的目的。这类植物的种群中具有两种独特的表现型,其差异央开花行为的不同：柱头下垂型个体在刚开花时其柱头向上反卷。位于已开裂的花药上方,到中午开始向下运动,下午则位于花药下方;柱头上举型个体的柱头在开花初期向花冠内卷曲,位于未开裂的花药和唇瓣之间中午开始向上运动,当柱头上举到花药上方后,花药开裂,花偻开始散发。两种个体的开花行为是同步的,通过两种柱头反向运动授粉方式（不同时间的自花和异花授粉）具有相同的结实率,但套代的花序几科不结实,两种表型在自然种群中的比例为1：1。     

Mating system and stigmatic behaviour during flowering of Alpinia kwangsiensis (Zingiberaceae)

 Little is known about the breeding systems of tropical perennial ginger species. In this paper, we provide information about the breeding system of Alpinia kwangsiensis in Yunnan, Southwest China, specifically self-compatibility, mechanisms promoting outcrossing, and the visitation characteristics of pollinators. Populations of A. kwangsiensis have two specific phenotypes that differ in flowering behaviour: 1) “cataflexistyle” individuals in which the stigma is held erect above the dehiscent anther when anthesis begins in the morning and becomes decurved under the anther at noon and 2) “anaflexistyle” individuals in which the receptive stigma is decurved under the indehiscent anther first and moves into a reflexed superior position above the anther as it begins to shed pollen at mid-day. The stigmatic movements in the two floral phenotypes, which occur in a ratio of 1:1 in natural populations, are synchronous and correlate with the foraging behaviour of floral visitors; pollination is effected only between floral forms. Field experiments indicate that A. kwangsiensis is self-compatible and dependent upon insects for fertilization. This newly reported floral mechanism, which we have named “flexistyly,” adds to the repertoire of devices that have evolved in flowering plants to insure outcrossing. Received November 29, 2001 Accepted January 8, 2002     

Reproductive biology of Alpinia blepharocalyx (Zingiberaceae): another example of flexistyly

The floral biology and breeding system of Alpinia blepharocalyx were studied in Yunnan province, southwest China. Our results indicate that populations of A. blepharocalyx have two floral morphs, which differ in flowering behaviour: the cataflexistylous morph in which the stigma is held erect above the dehiscent anther when anthesis begins in the morning and becomes curved under the anther at afternoon, and the anaflexistylous morph in which the receptive stigma is curved under the indehiscent anther first and moves into a reflexed superior position above the anther as it begins to shed pollen in the afternoon; the flowering period of both floral morphs is 12 hours; the stylar movements in the two floral morphs are synchronous, and they have similar traits to those found in other Alpinia species previously reported. Also, on average, cataflexistylous flowers are larger than anaflexistylous flowers, especially the labellum and corolla tube length; moreover, the P/O ratio of the two floral morphs is significantly different: the cataflexistylous morph has more pollen grains and fewer ovules than the anaflexistylous morph; the evolutionary significance of this comparison is discussed. Cataflexistylous flowers were observed to produce a lower concentration of nectar than that of anaflexistylous flowers before 11:00 a.m., but they then have higher nectar concentration; cataflexistylous flowers always have more nectar than anaflexistylous flowers. Flowers of A. blepharocalyx were visited by fewer insects at a lower frequency, including honey bees (Apis cerana cerana) and two species of carpenter bees (Xylocopa spp.). No significant differences were found in the fruit set among the hand-pollination treatments regardless of selfing (geitonogamy and autogamy) or crossing (intermorph and intramorph); but all hand-pollination treatments exhibited much higher fruit set than the controls; meanwhile, no fruit set occurred in the unpollinated bagged plants. Pollen tube growth was examined using fluorescence microscopy following self, intramorph, and intermorph hand pollinations at different times of the day; the pollen tubes of both floral morphs have the same growth rate and the capability to reach the ovary. Both the results of pollen tube growth and fruit sets under different pollination conditions show that A. blepharocalyx is self-compatible and dependent upon insects for pollination. The distinctive flexistyly mechanism of A. blepharocalyx is likely a floral mechanism that promotes effective intermorph pollen transfer.     

The molecular phylogeny of Alpinia (Zingiberaceae): a complex and polyphyletic genus of gingers

Alpinia is the largest, most widespread, and most taxonomically complex genus in the Zingiberaceae with 230 species occurring throughout tropical and subtropical Asia. Species of Alpinia often predominate in the understory of forests, while others are important ornamentals and medicinals. Investigations of the evolutionary relationships of a subset of species of Alpinia using DNA sequence-based methods specifically test the monophyly of the genus and the validity of the previous classifications. Seventy-two species of Alpinia, 27 non-Alpinia species in the subfamily Alpinioideae, eight species in the subfamily Zingiberoideae, one species in the subfamily Tamijioideae, and three species in the outgroup genus Siphonochilus (Siphonochiloideae) were sequenced for the plastid matK region and the nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS) loci. Parsimony analyses of both individual and combined data sets identified six polyphyletic clades containing species of Alpinia distributed across the tribe Alpinieae. These results were supported by a Bayesian analysis of the combined data set. Except in a few specific cases, these monophyletic groupings of species do not correspond with either Schumann's (1904) or Smith's (1990) classification of the genus. Here we build on previous molecular analyses of the Alpinioideae and propose the next steps necessary to recognize new generic boundaries in the Alpinieae.     

Adaptive significance of flexistyly in Alpinia blepharocalyx (Zingiberaceae): a hand-pollination experiment

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Flexistyly is a sexual dimorphism where there are two morphs that differ in the temporal expression of sexual function and also involve reciprocal movement of the stigmatic surface through a vertical axis during the flowering period. The adaptive significance of flexistyly has been interpreted as a floral mechanism for outcrossing, but it may also function to reduce sexual interference in which styles and stigmas impede the pollen export. Here these two explanations of flexistyly were tested in Alpinia blepharocalyx through a hand-pollination experiment. METHODS: Hand-pollinations were performed in two temporal morphs and consisted of two sequential pollination treatments, namely self-pollination in the morning and inter-morph pollination in the afternoon (treatment 1) or conversely inter-morph pollination in the morning and self-pollination in the afternoon (treatment 2), and two simultaneous self- and inter-morph cross-pollination treatments either in the morning (treatment 3) or in the afternoon (treatment 4). Seed paternity was then determined to assess relative success of self- versus cross-pollen using allozyme markers. KEY RESULTS: In the sequential pollination treatments, whether the stigmas of recipients are receptive in the morning is crucial to the success of the pollen deposited. When the cataflexistylous (protandrous) morph served as pollen recipient, early-arriving pollen in the morning can sire only a very small proportion (<15%) of seeds because the stigmas were then unreceptive. However, when the anaflexistylous (protogynous) morph served as pollen recipient, early pollen did gain a large competitive advantage over the late pollen, particularly when cross-pollen arrived first. Simultaneous self- and inter-morph cross-pollination indicated that outcross-pollen is more competitive than self-pollen on receptive stigmas. CONCLUSIONS: Differential maturing of male and female organs in Alpinia blepharocalyx is sufficient for selfing avoidance, obviating the need for style movements. Instead, the upward style curvature of the cataflexistylous morph in the morning and the anaflexistylous morph in the afternoon most likely represents a means of reducing interference with pollen export.     

Floral and pollinator behaviour of flexistylous Bornean ginger, Alpinia nieuwenhuizii (Zingiberaceae)

Flexistyly is a unique floral mechanism involving extreme curving of the style. It was first described in Chinese ginger (Amomum, Zingiberaceae). This is a pioneer report on flexistylous gingers of Malesia, where most species of this family grow. We observed the floral behaviour and flower visitors in Alpinia nieuwenhuizii Val., a Bornean endemic. Although the floral behaviour and effective pollinators (carpenter bees, Xylocopa) were similar between the Bornean species and the previously reported flexistylous Alpinia, the pollinator behaviour between them strikingly differed with regard to the visit frequency of the pollinators showing a bimodal pattern during the day. This was a better match for the floral behaviour of the flexistylous Alpinia. Some gender differentiation observed between the two types of morphs is also discussed in the present study.     

Cytogenetics and taxonomy of the genus Globba L. (Zingiberaceae) in Malaya

Hexaploid chromosomal races of Globba cernua Bak. and G. patens Miq. show overlap in geographical distribution. Hybrid swarms in three separate localities on the Main Range in Malaya are analysed both morphologically and cytologically. Evidence indicates that introgressive hybridization of G. cernua Bak. by G. patens Miq. has taken place.     

The genus Hedychium (Zingiberaceae) in Thailand

Sirirugsa, P. & Larsen K. 1995. The genus Hedychium (Zingiberaceae) in Thailand. -Nord. J. Bot. 15: 301–304. Copenhagen. ISSN 0107–05513.
Three new species of Hedychium from Thailand are described and illustrated, H. samuiense, H. tomentosum , and H. biflorum . A key to the species occurring in Thailand is provided.     

The genus Kaempferia (Zingiberaceae) in Thailand

Three new species, Kaempferia larsenii, K. siamensis and K. spoliata are described and illustrated. A key to the Thai species is provided.     

Molecular Markers in the Identification of Some Early Flowering Curcuma L. (Zingiberaceae) Species

In this paper, isozymes have been used for the first time astools to aid identification of someCurcuma L. species that arestill taxonomically confused. These markers were employed toconfirm the taxonomic identification and to distinguish thetaxa analysed; the results were used to describe the relationshipwithin the early-flowering group. Twenty-one isozymes were initiallytested; out of these, eight isozymes showed reliable polymorphismto distinguish between the taxa analysed. Patterns from isozymedata were analysed using cluster analysis and UPGMA to producea dendrogram depicting the degree of relationship among thespecies. Copyright 1999 Annals of Botany Company Curcuma, Zingiberaceae, isozymes, species identification.     

Floral size variation causes differentiation of pollinators and genetic parameters in Alpinia nieuwenhuizii, a flexistylous ginger (Zingiberaceae)

Floral size dimorphism, pollination, and genetic variation of Alpinia nieuwenhuizii (Zingiberaceae), a flexitylous ginger, were studied. This study revealed that floral size differed among habitats (i.e., roadsides/riversides vs. forest floors). The effective pollinators of small-flowered populations of the species on a forest floor were different from those of large-flowered populations along roadsides/riversides. Using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) PCR, considerable genetic differentiation was detected between small- and large-flowered populations. These results indicate that reproductive isolation in A. nieuwenhuizii owing to the differentiation of pollen vectors between two floral size morphs may lead to genetic differentiation between the two morphs.     

The skin of primates. 28. The stump-tail macaque (Macaca speciosa)

Though having some similarities to that of the rhesus monkey, the skin of the stump-tail macaque has several unique features. The epidermis has a sparse population of active melanocytes, and there is practically no pigmentation in the dermis. The dermis is rich in elastic fibers, the function of which seems to be to anchor the hair follicles and the arrectores pilorum muscles, and the superficial blood vessels. Large numbers of eccrine and apocrine sweat glands in the forehead and scalp are reminiscent of the axillary organ in the Hominioidea. The very large sebaceous glands on the face and bald forehead and scalp resemble those of man. The forehead and anterior portion of the scalp are bald in the adult but not in juvenile animals. In spite of an apparently rich pelage, these animals seem to show a trend toward nakedness.     

Zingiberanamalayanum sp. nov. (Zingiberaceae) from India

Zingiber anamalayanum (Zingiberaceae), a new species from the southern western Ghats, India is described and illustrated. A phenetic analyses to assess the similarity indices and the uniqueness of the new species have been performed. A diagnostic key to Zingiber spp. in south India is provided.     

Effects of indole-3-acetic acid and auxin transport inhibitors on the style curvature of three Alpinia species (Zingiberaceae)

The effects of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and the auxin transport inhibitors 2, 3, 5-triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA) and 1-N-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) on the style curvature of Alpinia platychilus, A. blepharocalyx, and A. mutica were studied. Exogenous IAA stimulated the style curvature movement of the anaflexistylous morph (ana-morph) and cataflexistylous morph (cata-morph) of three Alpinia species in light, but had no effect in the dark. Treatment with auxin efflux inhibitors (NPA and TIBA) before flower opening did not affect the first curvature of the two morphs in darkness; however, the subsequent second movement of the ana-morph was enhanced by NPA or TIBA, while the second movement of the cata-morph was completely inhibited. After the first curvature, NPA and TIBA treatments at 06:00?hours (before significant illumination) and 11:00?hours (after the styles were illuminated for 4?h) increased the second curvature of the ana-morph, but significantly decreased that of the cata-morph. The effect at 06:00?hours was more significant than the effect at 11:00?hours. These results suggested that auxin and auxin transport affected the style curvature in a different way in the two morphs, and two morphs had distinct mechanisms for style movement at different times.