The use of microwave tissue fixation to demonstrate the in vivo phosphorylation of an acidic 80,000 molecular weight protein in the rat neocortex following treatment with soman

Studies were conducted to determine if soman, a cholinesterase inhibitor, could activate the protein kinase C system in the rat neocortex. Using microwave radiation for rapid tissue fixation, it was demonstrated that treatment with soman increased 32P incorporation into an acidic 80,000 molecular weight, heat-stable protein in vivo. Based on relative molecular weight and isoelectric point this protein appears to be identical to a protein identified as a substrate for protein kinase C. Additionally, a protein of the same molecular weight and isoelectric point could be phosphorylated in tissue slices prepared from the neocortex by cholinergic dependent mechanisms. Also, treatment with soman decreased protein kinase C in the soluble fraction of this brain region; however, no corresponding increase was observed in the particulate fraction. These results suggest that soman can activate protein kinase C in vivo, and demonstrate the utility of using microwave tissue fixation to study protein phosphorylation events in vivo.     

Phosphorylation of serine 833 in cytoplasmic domain of low density lipoprotein receptor by a high molecular weight enzyme resembling casein kinase II

A soluble protein kinase that phosphorylates the last serine residue (Ser-833) in the cytoplasmic domain of the low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor was purified about 1300-fold from the cytosol of bovine adrenal cortex. The LDL receptor kinase shared several properties with casein kinase II: use of either GTP or ATP; phosphorylation of a typical casein kinase II recognition sequence in the LDL receptor (a serine followed by a cluster of three negatively charged amino acids); and inhibition by heparin. The LDL receptor kinase differed from classic casein kinase II in the following respects: its apparent molecular weight on gel filtration was approximately 500,000 as opposed to the usual molecular weight of 130,000 for casein kinase II; its affinity for the LDL receptor (apparent Km approximately 5 nM) was much greater than its affinity for casein (approximately 10 microM); and its activity was inhibited by polylysine, an agent that stimulates casein kinase II. The physiologic role of this unusual kinase, if any, is unknown.     

Phosphorylation of cardiac sarcolemma by endogenous and exogenous protein kinases.

Sarcolemmal membranes isolated from guinea pig heart ventricles contained endogenous protein kinase activity and protein substrates for this enzyme. Phosphorylation of sarcolemma was modestly stimulated by cyclic AMP with the half-maximal stimulation at 0.5 μm cyclic AMP. The phosphorylation of sarcolemma due to endogenous kinase was dependent on Mg²⁺. The apparent affinity for Mg²⁺ was found to be 1.4 and 0.53 mm in the absence and presence of 1 μm cyclic AMP, respectively. The apparent affinity for ATP was 55 μm. Sarcolemmal membranes were also phosphorylated by exogenous (purified) cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase(s). Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of phosphorylated membranes, followed by slicing and determination of the radioactivity in the gel slices, showed that endogenous protein kinase activity promoted the phosphorylation of specific protein peaks, arbitrarily designated a–g in order of increasing relative mobility (relative molecular weights 125,000, 110,000, 86,000, 58,000, 48,000, 22,000, and 16,000, respectively); peak e (48,000) was the major phosphorylated band. Exogenous protein kinase stimulated the phosphorylation of all peaks. However, the degree of stimulation of the low molecular weight peaks f and g was more marked. Results obtained after treatment of phosphorylated membranes with hydroxylamine at acid pH indicated the absence of any significant amount of acyl phosphate-type incorporation of phosphate. Purified phosphoprotein phosphatase from rabbit liver effected dephosphorylation of previously phosphorylated sarcolemma; this treatment resulted in dephosphorylation of all peaks (a–g). Pretreatment of sarcolemma with trypsin (membrane to trypsin ratio of 100) was found to markedly reduce both the total membrane phosphorylation as well as relative phosphorylation of peaks c, f, and g. On the other hand, pretreatment of sarcolemma with phospholipase c slightly stimulated total membrane phosphorylation with nondiscriminatory enhancement of the phosphorylation of all peaks. Microsomal membrane vesicles (enriched in sarcoplasmic reticulum fragments) isolated from guinea pig heart ventricle also contained endogenous protein kinase activity. Cyclic AMP modestly increased the kinase. Polypeptides of molecular weights 56,000, 22,000, and 16,000 were found to be phosphorylated. Exogenous (purified) cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase increased the phosphorylation of microsomes and of 22,000 and 16,000 molecular weight polypeptides.     

Phosphorylation of the insulin receptor by a casein kinase I-like enzyme.

A serine protein kinase that phosphorylates the beta-subunit of the insulin receptor has been partially purified 5,000-fold from HeLa cell membranes. The enzyme has been purified by ion-exchange and hydroxylapatite chromatography and sucrose gradient centrifugation; it has an apparent molecular weight of 36,000-43,000 daltons. It exhibits the following properties: (a) it catalyzes the phosphorylation of the autophosphorylated insulin receptor more efficiently than the nonautophosphorylated insulin receptor, (b) it decreases insulin receptor phosphorylation of tubulin but has no effect on insulin receptor phosphorylation of microtubule-associated proteins or reduced and carboxyamidomethylated lysozyme. The enzyme also phosphorylates casein and ribosomal protein S6 and shares many properties with casein kinase I: (a) similar molecular weight, (b) utilization of ATP but not GTP as phosphoryl donor, and (c) sensitivity to inhibition by heparin. Based on several criteria the receptor serine kinase is neither protein kinase C nor the cAMP-dependent protein kinase.     

Cholinergic antagonism of beta-adrenergic stimulation of cardiac membrane protein phosphorylation in situ

The phosphorylation of cardiac membrane proteins has been studied in preparations of newborn chick hearts. Membranes were isolated from 32P-loaded tissue after treatment with or without the beta-adrenergic receptor agonist isoproterenol and/or the muscarinic cholinergic receptor agonist oxotremorine. The phosphorylation of a low molecular weight membrane protein was enhanced by isoproterenol as early as 10 s after adding the drug. This phosphoprotein had a molecular weight of approximately 26,000 or 14,000 depending on the conditions used to solubilize the membranes prior to electrophoresis. It is most probably phospholamban/calciductin. The apparent molecular weight of the protein observed at 26,000 increased by approximately 1,000 as phosphorylation increased. The phosphorylation of this protein was abolished by short term treatment of the isoproterenol-treated tissue with the muscarinic receptor agonist oxotremorine. Effects of oxotremorine were observed within 30 s and were maximal between 2-5 min. The oxotremorine-induced decrease in phosphorylation was accompanied by a decrease in molecular weight. This phosphoprotein was found in a membrane fraction enriched in cardiac sarcolemma as well as in another containing sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic reticulum. The phosphorylation of this membrane component may play a role in the effects of beta-adrenergic and muscarinic cholinergic agonists on cardiac contractile force.     

Protein kinases of retinal rod outer segments: identification and partial characterization of cyclic nucleotide dependent protein kinase and rhodopsin kinase

Protein kinase activity of dark-adapted bovine rod outer segments is partitioned by centrifugation into soluble and membrane-bound fractions. The soluble kinases are separated by DEAE-cellulose chromatography into three peaks of activity, which can be classified by substrate specificity and cyclic nucleotide dependence into two categories. One peak of protein kinase activity has the characteristics reported for rhodopsin kinase (category one); it phosphorylates only bleached rhodopsin, and its activity is not affected by light, exogenous adenosine cyclic 3',5'--monophosphate (cAMP), guanosine cyclic 3',5'-monophosphate (cGMP), or a protein kinase inhibitor from skeletal muscle. Rhodopsin kinase has an apparent molecular weight of 68 000. The second category of kinase includes two peaks of activity which are stimulated severalfold by cAMP or cGMP but not by light. These protein kinases phosphorylate soluble proteins including histones and a protein kinase substrate prepared from rat intestine but not rhodopsin. The two peaks elute from DEAE-cellulose with 0.09 and 0.20 M KCl, suggesting that they are similar respectively to type I and type II cyclic nucleotide dependent protein kinases that have been characterized in other tissues. The activity of type I kinase is variable and much less than that of the type II enzyme; its molecular weight was not determined. The type II protein kinase has an apparent molecular weight of 165 000. This study confirms that different protein kinase enzymes catalyze selectively the phosphorylation of bleached rhodopsin and soluble proteins, and it repudiates the speculation in a previous publication [Farber, D. B., Brown, B. M., & Lolley, R. N. (1979) Biochemistry 18, 370-378] that a single protein kinase might catalyze both phosphorylation reactions.     

Phosphorylation of the mammalian beta-adrenergic receptor by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. Regulation of the rate of receptor phosphorylation and dephosphorylation by agonist occupancy and effects on coupling of the receptor to the stimulatory guanine nucleotide regulatory protein

In some systems, such as the turkey erythrocyte, agonist-promoted phosphorylation of the beta-adrenergic receptor appears to be associated with desensitization of the adenylate cyclase system. This process can be partially mimicked by cyclic AMP analogs. Accordingly, we have investigated the phosphorylation of the pure mammalian beta-adrenergic receptor by the pure catalytic subunit of the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. The beta-adrenergic receptor, purified from hamster lung to apparent homogeneity, contains a single polypeptide of Mr approximately 64,000. The receptor can be phosphorylated in vitro by the catalytic subunit of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (approximately 2 mol of phosphate (on serine residues) per mol). Isoproterenol, a beta-agonist, promoted a 2-3-fold increase in the rate of receptor phosphorylation which was blocked by the beta-antagonists propranolol and alprenolol. High performance liquid chromatographic tryptic peptide mapping reveals two major phosphorylation sites. Phosphorylated receptor can be completely dephosphorylated by a high molecular weight phosphoprotein phosphatase. The rate of receptor dephosphorylation is enhanced 2-3-fold by isoproterenol and this effect is blocked by alprenolol. The functional significance of receptor phosphorylation was examined using ligand binding and reconstitution techniques. While the binding of isoproterenol and alprenolol to the receptor was unaffected by phosphorylation, the ability of the receptor to interact with the stimulatory guanine nucleotide regulatory protein, as assessed by isoproterenol-promoted GTPase activity, was decreased 24 +/- 1% (mean +/- S.E., p less than 0.001, n = 17). The quantitative extent of receptor phosphorylation and functional impairment are virtually identical to those previously observed when intact turkey erythrocytes were incubated with cyclic AMP. These data provide a direct demonstration of regulation of the function of the isolated beta-adrenergic receptor by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase.     

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP(1-38)) enhances N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor function and brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression via RACK1

We recently identified a novel mechanism for modulation of the phosphorylation state and function of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor via the scaffolding protein RACK1. We found that RACK1 binds both the NR2B subunit of the NMDA receptor and the nonreceptor protein-tyrosine kinase, Fyn. RACK1 inhibits Fyn phosphorylation of NR2B and decreases NMDA receptor-mediated currents in CA1 hippocampal slices (Yaka, R., Thornton, C., Vagts, A. J., Phamluong, K., Bonci, A., and Ron, D. (2002) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 99, 5710-5715). Here, we identified the signaling cascade by which RACK1 is released from the NMDA receptor complex and identified the consequences of the dissociation. We found that activation of the cAMP/protein kinase A pathway in hippocampal slices induced the release of RACK1 from NR2B and Fyn. This resulted in the induction of NR2B phosphorylation and the enhancement of NMDA receptor-mediated activity via Fyn. We identified the neuropeptide, pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP(1-38)), as a ligand that induced phosphorylation of NR2B and enhanced NMDA receptor potentials. Finally, we found that activation of the cAMP/protein kinase A pathway induced the movement of RACK1 to the nuclear compartment in dissociated hippocampal neurons. Nuclear RACK1 in turn was found to regulate the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor induced by PACAP(1-38). Taken together our results suggest that activation of adenylate cyclase by PACAP(1-38) results in the release of RACK1 from the NMDA receptor and Fyn. This in turn leads to NMDA receptor phosphorylation, enhanced activity mediated by Fyn, and to the induction of brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression by RACK1.     

Selectivity of protein kinase inhibitors in human intact platelets

The specificity of commonly used protein kinase inhibitors has been evaluated in the intact human platelet. Protein kinase C (PKC) and cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) were activated selectively by treating platelets with phorbol dibutyrate (PDBu) or prostacyclin (PGl2). PKC activity was quantitated by measuring PDBu-specific phosphorylation of a 47,000 molecular weight protein, and PKA activity monitored by measuring prostacyclin-dependent phosphorylation of a 22,000 molecular weight protein. Staurosporine and 1-(5-isoquinolinylsulphonyl)-2-methyl-piperazine (H-7) were found to be non-specific inhibitors in the intact platelet, consistent with their effects on the isolated enzymes. Tamoxifen inhibited PKC activity (IC50 = 80 microM) but increased PKA-dependent protein phosphorylation. These results support the use of human platelets for measuring the specificity of protein kinase inhibitors and indicate that tamoxifen might have value for experimental purposes as a relatively selective PKC inhibitor.     

Caldesmon phosphorylation in intact human platelets by cAMP-dependent protein kinase and protein kinase C

Caldesmon is a calmodulin- and actin-binding protein present in both smooth and non-muscle tissue. The present study demonstrates that platelet caldesmon is a substrate for cAMP-dependent protein kinase (protein kinase A). Purified platelet caldesmon has an apparent molecular mass of 82 kDa on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels and can be phosphorylated in vitro by the catalytic subunit of protein kinase A to a level of 2 mol of phosphate/mol of caldesmon. Phosphorylation of caldesmon by protein kinase A results in a shift in the apparent molecular mass of the protein to 86 kDa. When caldesmon was immunoprecipitated from intact platelets treated with prostacyclin (PGI2) the same shift in apparent molecular mass of caldesmon was observed. Comparison of two-dimensional tryptic phosphopeptide maps of caldesmon phosphorylated in vitro by protein kinase A with caldesmon immunoprecipitated from intact platelets verified that protein kinase A was responsible for the observed increase in caldesmon phosphorylation in PGI2-treated platelets. The present study demonstrates that although caldesmon is basally phosphorylated in the intact platelet, activation of protein kinase A by PGI2 results in the significant incorporation of phosphate into two new sites. In addition, the effects of phorbol ester, collagen, and thrombin on caldesmon phosphorylation were also examined. Although phorbol ester treatment results in a significant increase in caldesmon phosphorylation apparently by protein kinase C, treatment of intact platelets with thrombin or collagen does not result in an increase in caldesmon phosphorylation.     

Purification and immunochemical interrelationship of insulin receptors from rat brain and liver.

Insulin receptors from rat brain and liver were purified. Brain purified receptor exhibited protein bands of apparent Mr = 135,000 and 95,000 molecular weight corresponding to alpha- and beta-subunits, retained a tyrosine specific protein kinase activity and demonstrated phosphorylation that is hormonally sensitive. Antisera were raised against both insulin receptor preparations and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was developed. The comparison of two insulin receptors was based on a displacement enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay where antisera were interchanged on predetermined optimal dilutions. This indicated that both insulin receptors possess some unique antigenic determinants thereby implying a structural difference.     

In vitro phosphorylation of high molecular weight glutenin subunits from wheat endosperm

We have investigated the in vitro phosphorylation of high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GS), a group of non-soluble proteins present in wheat endosperm. Computer aided searches of potential biological sites in the known sequences of these proteins have evidenced the presence of sequence motifs specific for protein kinase C (PKC), calcium-dependent protein kinase from wheat, casein kinase II, tyrosine protein kinase and glycosylation. We have demonstrated that subunit 1Bx7 is a substrate of a partially purified PKC from rat brain. Further experiments have shown that this subunit is phosphorylated by an endogenous protein kinase activity found in wheat flour. These preliminary results are important for the possible implications on the structure-function relationships of these proteins and could probably suggest, for the first time, a potential physiological role in particular situations for some HMW-GS.     

Protein tyrosine phosphorylation associated with activation of the interleukin 2 receptor.

The addition of interleukin 2 (IL2) to the IL2-dependent murine cytotoxic T cell line CTTL-2 induced increased tyrosine phosphorylation of a protein with a molecular weight of 80,000 and, to a lesser extent, proteins with molecular weights of 130,000, 100,000, and 69,000. To correlate the stimulation of tyrosine phosphorylation with increased tyrosine kinase activity, cell-free phosphorylation assays were performed. Phosphotyrosine-containing proteins were purified from detergent-solubilized cell lysates by immunoprecipitation with anti-phosphotyrosine antibodies. The level of tyrosine kinase activity was determined by incorporation of [gamma-32P]ATP into the exogenous substrate histone H2B. IL2 treatment of cells increased H2B phosphorylation 10-fold when compared with nonstimulated cells. Phosphorylation was first detected after 2.5 min of incubation with physiologically relevant (100 pM) IL2 doses. To examine if tyrosine kinase activity was resident within the IL2 receptor complex, cell-free phosphorylation assays were performed with ligand-receptor complexes following cross-linking with IL2 and purification by immunoabsorption with an anti-IL2 antibody. Tyrosine kinase activity was found specifically associated with the IL2 receptor complex. These results indicate that the IL2 receptor complex contains a tyrosine kinase activity that is induced by IL2 binding and suggest that components of the complex may be a substrate of this activity.     

Correlation of agonist-induced phosphorylation of chick heart muscarinic receptors with receptor desensitization

We have determined whether the process of agonist-mediated phosphorylation of the muscarinic receptor correlates with the process of muscarinic receptor desensitization in chick cardiac tissue. Exposure of ventricular slices to the agonist carbachol under conditions previously shown to lead to large increases in muscarinic receptor phosphorylation (Kwatra, M. M., and Hosey, M. M. (1986) J. Biol. Chem. 261, 12429-12432) resulted in decreased affinity of the muscarinic receptor for agonists. The agonist oxotremorine mimicked and the antagonist atropine prevented the effects of carbachol on receptor phosphorylation and agonist affinity. The time courses and concentration dependences for agonists to induce phosphorylation of the muscarinic receptor and decreases in agonist affinity were similar. Treatment of chick atria with acetylcholine under conditions which led to receptor phosphorylation resulted in decreased sensitivity of these preparations to the negative inotropic effect of carbachol. Taken together, the results support the concept that phosphorylation of cardiac muscarinic receptors may be related to the process of receptor desensitization. The mechanism by which agonists induce receptor phosphorylation was also investigated. The phosphorylated amino acids formed in response to agonists were serine and threonine. The protein kinase C activator phorbol myristate acetate had no effect on receptor phosphorylation or agonist affinity, nor did it prevent the effects of carbachol on either of these parameters. Receptor phosphorylation also was unaffected by the calmodulin antagonists W-7 and W-13, by elevation of cyclic nucleotides, and by agonists which activate other cardiac receptor systems. The results suggest that the phosphorylation of cardiac muscarinic receptors requires agonist occupancy of the receptor and/or may involve the participation of a selective protein kinase.     

Membrane-bound protein kinase activity in acetylcholine receptor-enriched membranes

Membrane protein phosphorylation may be a general regulatory mechanism mediating the response of cells to exogenous metabolic and physical signals. We have determined that the membrane-bound acetylcholine receptor is the major substrate phosphorylated in situ by a nearby membrane protein kinase. Moreover, these same membranes also contain phosphoprotein phosphatase activity which dephosphorylates the membrane-bound receptor. These findings suggest that reversible phosphorylation of the actylcholine receptor may be critical for receptor function at the synapse. Therefore, it is necessary to define the properties of the enzymes which mediate this phosphorylation-dephosphorylation mechanism. In this report we describe the properties of the first component of this system, the membrane-bound protein kinase in receptor-enriched membranes from the electric organ of Torpedo californica. Only ATP is effective as a phosphate donor for this cyclic AMP-independent membrane kinase; GTP does not support phosphorylation of the receptor. Both casein and histone can also be phosphorylated by the membrane protein kinase, but casein is a better substrate. Although phosphorylation of the receptor appears to be regulated by cholinergic ligands and K+, casein phosphorylation is not specifically affected by these agents. Moreover, while phosphorylation of the acetylcholine receptor is maximal in receptor=enriched membranes, casein phosphorylation is similar in all membrane fractions prepared from the electric organ. Taken together, these findings suggest that the membrane protein kinase activity in receptor-enriched membranes is similar to most other membrane kinases. Therefore, the unique characteristics of membrane-bound acetylcholine receptor phosphorylation appear to be determined by the receptor and its availability as a substrate for the membrane kinase.     

Stimulation of p42 and p44 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases by Reactive Oxygen Species and Nitric Oxide in Hippocampus

Abstract: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been suggested to act as cellular messengers that mediate signal transduction cascades in various cell types. However, little is known about their role in this capacity in the nervous system. We have begun to investigate the role of ROS, and that of nitric oxide (NO), in mediating mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling in rat hippocampal slices. Our studies have revealed that direct exposure of hippocampal slices to hydrogen peroxide, xanthine/xanthine oxidase (a superoxide-generating system), sodium nitroprusside (an NO donor compound), S -nitroso- N -acetylpenicillamine (an NO donor compound), or 3-morpholinosydnonimine (a compound that produces NO and superoxide) results in an enhancement in tyrosine phosphorylation of several proteins, including proteins with apparent molecular masses of 42 and 44 kDa. We investigated the possibility that these proteins correspond to the active forms of p42 MAPK and p44 MAPK. Hippocampal slices exposed to various ROS and NO donors resulted in increases in levels of the active forms of both p42 MAPK and p44 MAPK. The ROS- and NO-enhanced tyrosine phosphorylation and activation of p42 MAPK and p44 MAPK were inhibited by pretreatment with the antioxidant N -acetyl- l -cysteine. Our observations indicate that ROS and NO can mediate protein tyrosine phosphorylation and MAPK signaling in the hippocampus via a redox-sensitive mechanism and suggest a potential cellular mechanism for their effects in the nervous system.     

Association of bovine brain-derived growth factor receptor with protein tyrosine kinase activity

Bovine brain-derived growth factor (BDGF) is very similar to endothelial cell growth factor and brain-derived acidic fibroblast growth factor in terms of pI (5.7) and molecular weight (approximately 17,000). BDGF has a wide spectrum of cell specificity, including bovine aorta endothelial cells and Swiss mouse 3T3 cells. BDGF stimulates the phosphorylation of a 135-kDa protein in plasma membranes of 3T3 cells. The optimal concentration for stimulation of phosphorylation is close to the Kd of 125I-BDGF binding to receptor, suggesting that the BDGF-stimulated 32P-labeled 135-kDa protein may be the BDGF receptor. The alkaline stability of this 32P-labeled 135-kDa phosphoprotein and phosphoamino acid analysis of the acid hydrolysates indicate that the phosphorylation occurs at tyrosine residues. The molecular size of BDGF receptor is estimated as approximately 135 kDa by cross-linking 125I-BDGF to its receptor in 3T3 cells, using a bifunctional reagent, ethylene glycolbis(succinimidylsuccinate). Both BDGF-stimulated phosphorylation and 125I-BDGF binding to receptor can be inhibited by protamine. These results suggest that the BDGF receptor is a 135-kDa protein which is associated with a protein tyrosine kinase activity.