Effect of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trichoderma</Emphasis> spp. isolates for biological control of tan spot of wheat caused by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pyrenophora tritici-repentis</Emphasis> under field conditions in Argentina

Trichoderma spp. have been used as biocontrol agents to protect plants against foliar diseases in several crops, but information from field assays is scarce. In the present work, experiments were carried out to determine the effect of six isolates of Trichoderma harzianum and one isolate of T. koningii on the incidence and severity of tan spot, caused by Pyrenophora tritici-repentis (anamorph: Drechslera tritici-repentis) under field conditions. Significant differences between years, wheat cultivars and treatments were found. In 2003, two of the isolates assayed (T5, T7) showed the best performance against the disease applied as seed treatments or sprayed onto wheat leaves at different stages. The application of six of the treatments on wheat plants significantly reduced disease severity by 16 to 35% in comparison with the control. Disease control provided by isolate T7 was similar to that provided by the fungicide treatment (56% reduction). This is the first report on the efficacy of Trichoderma spp. against tan spot under field conditions in Argentina.     

Esterase electrophoretic analysis to distinguish isolates between Bipolaris spp. and Drechslera tritici-repentis from wheat

Diseases caused in wheat by Bipolaris sorokiniana and Drechslera tritici-repentis have led to considerable yield and production losses. In wheat seeds another isolate has recently been identified, resembling Bipolaris bicolor. The objective of the present trial was to differentiate and identify isolates of these fungi based on electrophoretic analyses and morphology. Esterase electrophoresis enabled the differentiation between Drechslera sp. and Bipolaris sp. isolates. In relation to morphology, conidia from D. tritici-repentis isolates were significantly longer than the isolates of B. sorokiniana. Bipolaris bicolor isolates, on the other hand, presented wider conidia than those of D. tritici-repentis and B. sorokiniana.     

Isozyme polymorphisms within <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pyrenophora tritici-repentis</Emphasis> population in Argentina

Tan spot caused by Pyrenophora tritici-repentis is an economically important disease of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in Argentina. The success of local breeding programs for resistance to the disease depends to a large extent on the genetic variation within the pathogen population. To assay this variability, 155 isolates of P. tritici-repentis obtained from leaves of wheat and Festuca sp. of different localities were assayed and compared for isozyme polymorphisms. Isozyme analysis was performed with polyacrilamide gel electrophoresis in the systems estearase, phosphatase and peroxidase. Variation in the number and relative mobility of the bands by each system was detected in this collection of isolates. Intraspecific polymorphisms were identified in the three systems assayed. The cluster analysis based in bands patterns defined 86 electromorph types among the 155 isolates evaluated according with the Jaccard’s coefficient (CCC = 095). The isozymes patterns were not correlated with the geographic and/or wheat cultivars origin of the P. tritici-repentis isolates.     

Antagonistic activity of bacteria isolated from crops cultivated in a rotation system and a monoculture against <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pythium debaryanum</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium oxysporum</Emphasis>

The effect of crop rotation and monocropping on the occurrence of bacteria with antagonistic activity toward Pythium debaryanum and Fusarium oxysporum was shown. Arthrobacter spp., fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. and actinomycetes were isolated from winter rape, sugar beet and winter barley rhizosphere and bulk soil from the plots of a long-term crop rotation experiment (18 years). The occurrence of mycoantagonistic isolates and their antibiosis level exhibited specificity for the site, crop and crop rotation. Mycoantagonistic activity was common among actinomycetes and fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. and less frequent among Arthrobacter spp. Antibiosis of fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. and Arthrobacter spp. was in general stronger against P. debaryanum than F. oxysporum. The highest percentage of antagonistic Pseudomonas spp. against P. debaryanum was in the plots of barley crop, while plots of winter rape showed higher frequency of antagonists against F. oxysporum. The highest antibiosis activity of Arthrobacter spp. against both pathogens occurred in isolates from barley and winter rape monoculture, and there were no F. oxysporum antagonists among these bacteria in sugar beet monoculture. Most of actinomycete isolates strongly inhibited growth of P. debaryanum and F. oxysporum. The percentage of mycoantagonistic actinomycetes and their antibiosis level were the highest in the 6-year crop rotation system.     

Effects of crop rotation and fertilization on catalase activity in a soil of the southeastern United States

Summary Catalase activity of a loamy sand under a 3-year crop rotation in the southeastern U.S.A. was monitored. Corn (Zea mays L.), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] were the summer crops in the rotation. Winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was planted after corn, and soybean was followed by a winter fallow period. Cotton was followed by a mixture of common vetch (Vicia sativa L.) and crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum Gibelli & Belli) which was eventually plow-incorporated as a green manure. Highest mean catalase activities were recorded in soil under the wheat, soybean, and winter legume crops; lowest activities were found in soil bearing corn and cotton, and during the winter fallow period. The fertilization regime influenced soil catalase activity independently of the crop. Soil deficient in any of the major elements showed low enzyme activity. Highest activity was found in soil fertilized with P and K, and with N supplied by a winter legume crop. Addition of supplementary mineral nitrogen to this regime reduced catalase activity. Elimination of the winter legume crop from an otherwise complete fertilization regime resulted in a drastic reduction in enzyme activity. In soil receiving a complete fertilization regime there was a close correlation between soil catalase and xylanase activities. A similar correlation between these two enzymes was not found in soil receiving incomplete fertilization.     

Strategies to reduce DON contamination of wheat with different soil tillage and variety systems

With the focus on minimizingFusarium head blight and the deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination of wheat a three year crop rotation system starting with forage maize and followed by two years of winter wheat was combined with three soil tillage systems and selected plant varieties with varying susceptibility toFusarium infection. Higher DON concentrations were generally observed in wheat grain when the soil was mulched rather than ploughed, depending on the mass of maize residues remaining on the soil surface. Maize residues are the most important source ofFusarium inoculum. Infected maize residues had a main impact on the level of DON contamination in wheat grain particularly in the first year after maize cultivation. When the maize stubble was chopped before mulching, the decomposition of the residues was speeded up and the DON contamination of the wheat grain was lower. In the second year following the maize crop, the decomposition of the maize residues/Fusarium biomass was nearly complete and the infection risk was reduced considerably. An influence of the susceptibility of the maize variety against stem rot on the DON concentration of the succeeding winter wheat crop was not observed. The less susceptible wheat variety was suitable for controlling the higher infection risk deriving from the introduction of maize in wheat rotation and the use of mulching techniques. Presented at the 28^th Mykotoxin-Workshop, Bydgoszcz, Poland, May 29–31, 2006     

Characteristics of a Pythium arrhenomanes with High Frequency in Barley Soils

Soils from two long-term crop rotation experiments were examined for incidence of root pathogens with a test tube method, where a great number (hundreds) of small portions (15–68g) of soil were biotested. There was a 4–5 times higher frequency of a root-infecting Pythium sp. In barley monoculture soil when compared to crop rotation soil, where winter turnip rape was the preceding crop. In pathogenicity tests the isolated pathogen caused severe root rot on barley, wheat and rye, but did not affect growth of oats, maize, peas and winter rape. In all essential morphological characters it resembles P. arrhenomanes and we classify it as belonging to this species.     

On-farm experiments over 5 years in a grain maize/winter wheat rotation: effect of maize residue treatments on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium graminearum</Emphasis> infection and deoxynivalenol contamination in wheat

Over the course of 5 years, different maize residue treatments were conducted on 14 zero tillage on-farm sites in Switzerland to evaluate their effect on the development of Fusarium head blight (FHB) and the contamination with the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) in winter wheat grains and wheat straw following grain maize. Two experimental series with three and five different treatments were carried out, respectively. Fusarium graminearum (Schwabe) was the predominant FHB-causing species with an overall incidence of 15% infected wheat grains. A significant correlation between symptoms in the field, F. graminearum incidence and DON content in wheat grains and wheat straw was observed. The average DON content in both wheat grains and wheat straw was approximately 5,000 μg/kg and thus several times higher than the European maximum limit of 1,250 μg/kg for unprocessed small-grain cereals for human consumption. Of all grain samples, 74% were above the maximum limit. Pooled over both experimental series, the average reduction of DON in grains through treatments of the maize residue compared with a control treatment ranged between 21 and 38%. The effect of various other factors, including the year, the wheat variety, the site, the maize hybrid and the production system was evaluated as well. The year and the wheat variety were the most important FHB influencing factors. Over all treatments, the variety Levis showed a fivefold higher average DON content compared with the variety Titlis. From different categories of maize residue particles, intact pieces of 5–15 cm length were strongly correlated with F. graminearum incidence and DON content in grains. During the time course of this study, the recommendation from a preliminary version of the internet-based DON forecasting system FusaProg to apply or to omit a fungicide treatment was correct in 32 out of 42 cases. The results are currently being used to optimise the FusaProg models. This study has shown that in a grain maize/winter wheat rotation, the DON content in wheat grains frequently exceeded the European maximum limit, even with a thorough treatment of maize residues and less susceptible wheat varieties. Hence, in order to reduce the contamination risk in a zero tillage system, the crop rotation needs to be modified.     

Pyrenophora teres,an agent causing wheat leaf spot

In 2007–2008, the barley net blotch agent Pyrenophora teres was found to infect spring wheat in northwestern Russia, causing symptoms similar to wheat tan spot caused by P. tritici-repentis. The frequency of occurrence of P. teres on spring wheat cultivars was 12–29%. P. teres isolates were more virulent to some wheat cultivars than P. tritici-repentis ones. P. teres was not found on wheat in the south of Russia (Krasnodar krai, Dagestan).     

The effects of crop rotation and fertilization on soil xylanase activity in a soil of the southeastern United States

Summary Xylanase activity was determined in soils from a 3-year rotation with corn, (Zea mays L.), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), and soybean (Glycine max (L) Merr.) as summer crops at Auburn, Alabama, in the southeastern U.S.A. Winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) followed corn and a period of winter fallow as maintained after soybeans. A combination of common vetch (vicia sativa L.) and crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum Gibelli & Belli) followed cotton during the winter months to serve as green manure. Highest xylanase activity was detected after soybeans and lowest after cotton among the summer crops. The culture of wheat and winter legumes resulted in increased soil xylanase activity wheareas winter fallowing reduced the activity. The effect of various fertilization schemes superimeposed on the rotation on soil xylanase activity was also studied. Seasonal fluctuations in soil xylanase activity were not affected by the fertilization regimes and highest xylanase activities were observed during crop periods and with fertilization treatments that resulted in high root densities but not necessarily in high yields.     

The occurrence of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza in agro-ecosystems

In a long-lasting field experiment at the Research Station Hanninghof at Dülmen (Westphalia), laid out in 1971, the inoculum potential (IP) of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi of soil from winter wheat in a continuous monoculture (CM) and in a four-years cereal crop rotation (CR, winter wheat, winter barley, winter rye, oats) was investigated from 1980 to 1982. The influence of green manure and two levels of introgen fertilization (100 and 200 kg ha⁻¹) on VAM-IP was also assessed. It turned out that VAM is frequent also in intensively cultivated soils, but varies this with the crop rotation system and form and intensity of fertilization. Compared to CR the VAM-IP was significantly reduced in CM. A cumulation of this effect, with a particularly strong decrease of VAM occurred when other factors unfavourable for the symbiosis coincided in CM. Among these factors were the use of non-mycorrhizalRaphanus sativus andBrassica napus for green manure together with a N-fertilization of 200 kg ha⁻¹. On the other hand green manure and the higher N-fertilization resulted in less disturbance of the VAM-IP in the CR. A correlation between VAM-IP in the soil and of wheat yields could neither be observed in the CR nor in the CM.     

Influence of tillage on<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> spp. in Different Crop Rotation Systems

In the present study the influence of different conventional and reduced tillage systems onFusarium spp. and the production of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol in winter wheat and maize in different crop rotation systems was investigated. Field trials were conducted in semihumid areas in Lower and Upper Austria and in the pannonian area in Eastern Austria. Generally, extremely dry and hot climatic conditions in all trial years resulted in low infestation levels. As a consequence, no significant effect of tillage system on the infestation withFusarium spp. in winter wheat respectively maize and the contamination with deoxynivalenol was found.     

Trace elements bioavailability to winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown subsequent to high biomass plants in a greenhouse study

Multielement-contaminated agricultural land requires the adaptation of agronomic practices to meet legal requirements for safe biomass production. The incorporation of bioenergy plants with, at least, moderate phytoextraction capacity into crop rotations with cereals can affect trace elements (TE) phytoavailability and, simultaneously, constitute economic revenues for farmers outside the food or forage sector. Hence, in a crop rotation pot study sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), modified for high biomass and TE accumulation by chemical mutagenesis, was compared to winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) as pre-crop. On two agricultural soils with different TE loads, the crops´ potential for phytoextraction and for impacts on TE uptake by subsequent winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was studied. The results showed that rape tolerated high-level mixed contamination with metals (Cd, Pb and Zn) and As more than sunflower. In both soils, labile metals concentration increased and soil acidity remained high following sunflower. Furthermore, enhanced grain As accumulation in subsequent wheat was observed. By contrast, soil acidity and Cd or Zn accumulation of subsequent wheat decreased following rape. In the short term, moderate phytoextraction was superimposed by nutrient use or rhizosphere effects of pre-crops, which should be carefully monitored when designing crop rotations for contaminated land.     

Survival and reproduction of the pest mites <Emphasis Type="Italic">Balaustium medicagoense</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bryobia</Emphasis> spp. on winter grain crops

Balaustium medicagoense and Bryobia spp. have recently been identified as emerging pests of winter crops and pastures in Australia. These mites have a high natural tolerance to currently registered pesticides, highlighting the need to develop alternative control strategies such as cultural controls which require an understanding of plant associations. In shade-house experiments, Bryobia spp. survived and reproduced successfully on pasture, lupins and oats, but progeny failed to reach the adult stage on canola and wheat. Balaustium medicagoense progeny failed to produce a generation on any crop but parental adults survived a few months on all crops, particularly wheat. Bryobia spp. damaged canola, pasture and lupins, but caused minimal damage to oats and wheat, whereas Ba. medicagoense caused considerable damage to wheat and lupins, but only moderate damage to canola, oats and pasture. Field survey data, taken from approximately 450 sites across southern Australia, combined with analysis of historical pest reports, suggest broadleaf crops such as canola, lucerne, lupins and weeds appear particularly susceptible to attack by Bryobia species. Balaustium medicagoense was more commonly found on cereals and grasses, although they also attacked broadleaf crops, particularly canola, lucerne and lupins. These findings show that the mites have the potential to be an important pest on several winter grain crops and pasture, but there are important differences that can assist in management strategies such as targeted crop rotations.     

Effects of Crop Diversity on Agroecosystem Function: Crop Yield Response

Understanding the role of diversity in the functioning of ecosystems has important implications for agriculture. Previous agricultural research has shown that crop rotation and the use of cover crops can lead to increases in yield relative to monoculture; however, few studies have been performed within the broader context of diversity–ecosystem function theory and in the absence of chemical inputs. We performed a field experiment in SW Michigan, USA, in which we manipulated the number of crop species grown in rotation and as winter cover crops over a 3-year period to test if varying the number of species in a rotation affected grain yield, a critical metric of ecosystem function in row-crops. The experimental design was unique in that no fertilizer or pesticides were used, and the only management variable manipulated was number of species in the rotation, thus providing a strong comparison to grassland diversity–ecosystem function experiments. Treatments included continuous monocultures of three row-crops, corn Zea mays L., soybean Glycine max (L.) Merr., and winter wheat Triticum aestivum L., and 2- and 3-year annual rotations with and without cover crops (zero, one, or two legume/small grain species), encompassing a range of crop diversity from one to six species. Crop yields and weed biomass were measured annually for 3 years and plant available soil nitrogen was measured over the course of the growing season in the final year of the study. In all 3 years, corn grain yield increased linearly in response to the number of crops in the rotation. Corn yields in the highest diversity treatment (three crops, plus three cover crops) were over 100% higher than in continuous monoculture and were not significantly different from the county average for each of the 3 years despite the absence of chemical inputs. Corn yields in the diversity treatments were strongly correlated with the availability of inorganic soil nitrogen, which was likely influenced by the number of different legume species (crops and cover crops) present in the rotation. In soybean and winter wheat, yield differences among crop diversity treatments were also significant, but of lower magnitude (32 and 53%, respectively), and showed little direct relationship to the number of crop species grown in a rotation. Results demonstrate that agricultural research motivated by ecological theory can provide important insights into the functioning of agroecosystems and enhance our understating of the linkages between diversity and ecosystem function. Importantly, these results suggest that reduced chemical inputs do not necessarily result in yield penalties and provide support for incorporation of crop or species diversity when determining how ecosystem services can be included in food, fiber, and biofuel production.     

玉米、花生及其间作茬口与施磷对冬小麦光合特性及产量的影响机制

该试验在玉米单作茬口、玉米-花生间作茬口(间作茬口)、花生单作茬口共3种茬口,以及0 kg P_2O_5·hm~(-2)(P_0)和180 kg P_2O_5·hm~(-2)(P_1) 2个磷水平下,研究了间作茬口与施磷对冬小麦分蘖、叶面积指数(LAI)、干物质积累、光合特性及产量的影响机制,为玉米花生间作与小麦-玉米复种轮作提供理论依据。结果表明:(1)间作茬口较玉米茬口显著提高了冬小麦有效分蘖数、LAI、净光合速率和干物质积累量,并提高了冬小麦旗叶的SPAD值、CO_2饱和点、光饱和点及最大净光合速率(P_(nmax))、表观量子效率(AQY)、羧化效率(CE)、最大羧化速率(V_(cmax))、最大RUBP再生的电子传递速率(J_(max))和最大磷酸丙糖利用速率(V_(TPU)),且CE、V_(cmax)、V_(TPU)的增幅均达到显著水平(P0.05),有效改善了冬小麦产量构成,显著提高籽粒产量(P0.05)。(2)间作茬口较花生茬口提高了冬小麦乳熟期的P_(nmax)、AQY、CE,增加了穗粒数和粒重,提高了产量。(3)与不施磷相比,施磷180 kg P_2O_5·hm~(-2)显著促进间作茬口冬小麦生长,显著提高冬小麦旗叶的SPAD值、P_(nmax)、AQY、CE、V_(cmax)、J_(max)、V_(TPU)和籽粒产量(P0.05)。研究发现,间作茬口较玉米茬口能有效增强冬小麦旗叶表观量子效率和CO_2羧化能力,显著提高小麦花后光合能力,促进冬小麦生长,从而增加穗粒数、粒重和籽粒产量,且间作茬口结合施磷180 kg P_2O_5·hm~(-2)效果更好。     

Chemical control of frit fly on winter cereals sown after grass

From 1978 - 1985, 14 trials were conducted, mainly in Northern England, to assess the efficacy of different insecticides, formulations and application times for the control of frit fly (Oscinella frit) on winter cereals (13 on winter wheat and one on winter barley). Treatments were compared by assessing shoot damage in December-January, numbers of healthy tillers in April and harvested yield. A chlorpyrifos spray to the grass before ploughing or at crop emergence gave the most consistently good results, significantly reducing damage and increasing yield by 0·61 and 0·31 t/ha respectively when taken over all trials. Sprays or granules of other insecticides applied from before drilling to 8 wk after emergence gave variable but sometimes good control and enhanced yield. Chlorpyrifos applied from crop emergence to 8 wk after emergence was generally more effective than other insecticides. Cypermethrin at emergence or 2wk later gave promising results in the two trials where it was used. Of the seed treatments fonofos was the most effective though it did not match the spray treatments. In additional trials, where insecticides were applied after damage occurred, sprays of chlorpyrifos and pirimphos-methyl reduced damage and increased yield.     

Bodenbewohnende Schädlinge und Seitenwurzelfäule der Zuckerrübe in Abhängigkeit von der Rotation – Ergebnisse eines Fruchtfolgeversuches

Soil inhabiting pests and rot of feeding roots of sugar beet depending on rotation - Results of a long-term trial Over a period of 17 years a trial was carried out with sugar beet, cereals and oilseed rape in different crop rotations on a field near Göttingen (Lower Saxony). The frequency of sugar beet in the rotation was 17, 25, 33 and 67 %. In absence of beet nematodes, root and sugar yield of the beet decreased after repeated growing of sugar beet in short rotations compared to variants with long rotations. Sugar content and beet quality were only slightly influenced. By applying a bioassay (BW-Test) with young beet plants in the greenhouse it was shown that increasing infections on the tips of rootlets of the beet plants were the cause for decreasing beet yield in close rotations. Mortality of young beet plants and progress of infection in the test indicated roughly the quantity of pathogenic fungi in the soil. In the roots of the bait platits the parasitic fungus Aphanomyces cochlioides predominated. Rate of infection and yield reduction in the field were decisively influenced by weather conditions. Differences in yield between sugar beet grown in a three-year and a four-year rotation, however, were not significant. An occurrence of beet pests depending on crop rotation was stated only for Atomaria linearis and this only in a few years.     

The development of the bean seed fly <Emphasis Type="Italic">Delia platura</Emphasis> Mg. (Diptera,Anthomyiidae) and its harmfulness in forest-steppe agrocenoses of Samara Province

Delia platura Mg. is a polyphagous and polyvoltinic Holarctic species feeding mainly on booting cereals and seedling roots. In Samara Province, three generations of the species develop annually; the species hibernates as puparia in soil under winter crops at a depth of 10–20 cm; adults emerge during the first ten days of May. Most of all, the fly infests barley and winter wheat, preferring crop rotation systems with green-manure fallow and causing 2.6–7.2% yield loss.     

Reduction of Winter Wheat Yield Losses Caused by Stripe Rust through Fungicide Management

Stripe rust of winter bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) causes substantial grain yield loss in Central Asia. This study involved two replicated field experiments undertaken in 2009–2010 and 2010–2011 winter wheat crop seasons. The first experiment was conducted to determine grain yield reductions on susceptible winter wheat cultivars using single and two sprays of fungicide at Zadoks growth stages Z61–Z69 in two farmers’ fields in Tajikistan and one farmer's field in Uzbekistan. In the second experiment, four different fungicides at two concentrations were evaluated at Zadoks growth stage Z69. These included three products from BASF – Opus (0.5 l/ha and 1.0 l/ha), Platoon (0.5 l/ha and 1.0 l/ha) and Opera (0.75 l/ha and 1.5 l/ha) – and locally used fungicide Titul 390 (0.5 l/ha and 1.0 l/ha). One and two sprays of fungicides did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) in increasing grain yield. Stripe rust reduced grain yield and 1000‐kernel weight (TKW) from 24 to 39% and from 16 to 24%, respectively. The benefits from the two concentrations of the same fungicide did not consistently resulted in significantly higher grain yield, suggesting that the lower concentrations could be more cost effective. Our study provides important information about the selection of fungicides, spray concentrations and number of spray to control stripe rust and increase grain yield. The findings could play an important role in developing stripe rust management approaches such as fungicide rotation and strategic fungicide applications in Central Asian countries.