Testosterone, cortisol, and mood in a sports team competition

In humans, hormonal responses to winning/losing and their relationships to mood and status change have mostly been examined in individual athletic competitions. In this study, the salivary testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) and mood responses to a real match between two professional basketball teams were investigated. Data about individuals' contributions to outcome, performance appraisal, and attribution of outcome to internal/external factors were also collected. Results did not show statistically significant different T and C responses depending on the outcome. Negative mood was significantly enhanced, especially in the losers, while winners showed a better appraisal of team performance and a more internal attribution. T response did not show a significant relationship with mood changes, but it correlated positively with the "score/time playing" ratio, an indicator of individual participation in the outcome. Furthermore, T response correlated negatively with external attribution in winners and positively in losers. These results indicate that in a real, highly competitive situation, T changes are not directly a response to the outcome, but rather to the contribution the individual makes to it and to the causes he attributes.     

Testosterone, and winning and losing in human competition

Testosterone and cortisol were measured in six university tennis players across six matches during their varsity season. Testosterone rose just before most matches, and players with the highest prematch testosterone had the most positive improvement in mood before their matches. After matches, mean testosterone rose for winners relative to losers, especially for winners with very positive moods after their victories and who evaluated their own performance highly. Winners with rising testosterone had higher testosterone before their next match, in contrast to losers with falling testosterone, who had lower testosterone before their next match. Cortisol was not related to winning or losing, but it was related to seed (top players having low cortisol), and cortisol generally declined as the season progressed. These results are consistent with a biosocial theory of status.     

Testosterone,status, and mood in human males

Experimental literature on nonhuman primates indicates that a male's testosterone level changes when his status changes, rising when he achieves or defends a dominant position, and falling when he is dominated. Three experiments are reported which test for a similar effect among adult human males. In the first experiment, subjects played in doubles tennis matches in which winners received prizes of $ 100 apiece. Most winners of matches who had decisive victories showed subsequent rises in testosterone relative to losers of these matches; however, the winners of one very close match, in which there was no clear cut triumph, did not show testosterone rises. In the second experiment, subjects won $100 prizes, or not, depending on the random draw of a lottery. Winners in this situation, where their fortunes came without any effort of their own, did not show subsequent testosterone rises which were greater than those of losers. The third experiment used the natural setting of a medical school graduation. Rises in testosterone were observed among new recipients of the M.D. degree 1 and 2 days after the ceremony. In these experiments, changes in testosterone showed some relationship to subjects' moods. These results suggest that when a man achieves a rise in status through his own efforts, and he has an elation of mood over the achievement, then he is likely to have a rise in testosterone.     

Performance during competition and competition outcome in relation to testosterone and cortisol among women

A contribution to a special issue on Hormones and Human Competition.This study investigated the relation between competition, testosterone (T), and cortisol (C) in women. One hundred and twenty female participants competed against a male confederate in a computerized laboratory task. The task was preprogrammed so that half the women won and half of the women lost the competition. T and C concentrations were measured in saliva samples collected at four time points before and after the competition. Accuracy and reaction time during the competition were recorded. T and C increased directly after the competition, though not significantly for C, and then decreased over time regardless of the competition outcome. Regression analyses demonstrated that baseline T was significantly and positively associated with competition accuracy, though only in individuals who were low in C. Individuals who were high in C showed no relation between T and accuracy. This relation was further qualified by competition outcome. Losers of the competition showed a significant positive relation between baseline T levels and competition accuracy, though only if they were low in C. No relation was found between T and accuracy in losers who were high in C. Winners of the competition showed no relation between T and accuracy, regardless of whether C levels were high or low. These results are in line with the dual-hormone hypothesis, whereby the effects of T on status-seeking behaviors are dependent on C levels for individuals whose status is threatened.     

Testosterone and cortisol jointly regulate dominance: Evidence for a dual-hormone hypothesis

Traditional theories propose that testosterone should increase dominance and other status-seeking behaviors, but empirical support has been inconsistent. The present research tested the hypothesis that testosterone's effect on dominance depends on cortisol, a glucocorticoid hormone implicated in psychological stress and social avoidance. In the domains of leadership (Study 1, mixed-sex sample) and competition (Study 2, male-only sample), testosterone was positively related to dominance, but only in individuals with low cortisol. In individuals with high cortisol, the relation between testosterone and dominance was blocked (Study 1) or reversed (Study 2). Study 2 further showed that these hormonal effects on dominance were especially likely to occur after social threat (social defeat). The present studies provide the first empirical support for the claim that the neuroendocrine reproductive (HPG) and stress (HPA) axes interact to regulate dominance. Because dominance is related to gaining and maintaining high status positions in social hierarchies, the findings suggest that only when cortisol is low should higher testosterone encourage higher status. When cortisol is high, higher testosterone may actually decrease dominance and in turn motivate lower status.     

Testosterone,oxytocin, and the development of human parental care

The steroid testosterone (T) and neuropeptide oxytocin (OT) have each been implicated in the development of parental care in humans and animals, yet very little research addressed the interaction between these hormones at the transition to parenthood in mothers and fathers. One hundred and sixty mothers and fathers (80 couples) were visited 1 and 6 months after the birth of their first child, plasma OT and T were assayed at each time-point, and interactions between each parent and the infant were observed and micro-coded for two key parental behaviors; affectionate touch and parent-infant synchrony. T showed gender-specific effects. While paternal T was individually stable across the first six months of parenting and predicted lower father-infant synchrony, maternal T was neither stable nor predictive of maternal behavior. An interaction of OT and T showed that T has complex modulatory effects on the relations of OT and parenting. Slope analysis revealed that among fathers, only when T was high (+ 1SD), negative associations emerged between OT and father affectionate touch. In contrast, among mothers, the context of high T was related to a positive association between OT and maternal touch. Our findings, the first to test the interaction of OT and T in relation to observed maternal behavior, underscore the need for much further research on the complex bidirectional effects of steroid and neuropeptide systems on human mothering and fathering.     

Testosterone and cortisol concentrations vary with reproductive status in wild female red deer

Although hormones are key regulators of many fitness and life history traits, the causes of individual level variation in hormones, particularly in wild systems, remain understudied. Whilst we know that androgen and glucocorticoid levels vary within and among individuals in mammalian populations, how this relates to key reproductive processes such as gestation and lactation, and their effects on a female''s measurable hormone levels are poorly understood in wild systems. Using fecal samples collected from females in a wild red deer population between 2001 and 2013, we explore how fecal androgen (FAM) and cortisol (FCM) metabolite concentrations change with age and season, and how individual differences relate to variation in reproductive state. Both FAM and FCM levels increase toward parturition, although this only affects FCM levels in older females. FCM levels are also higher when females suckle a male rather than a female calf, possibly due to the higher energetic costs of raising a son. This illustrates the importance of accounting for a female''s life history and current reproductive status, as well as temporal variation, when examining individual differences in hormone levels. We discuss these findings in relation to other studies of mammalian systems and in particular to the relatively scarce information on variation in natural levels of hormones in wild populations.     

Testosterone responses to competition in men are related to facial masculinity

Relationships between androgens and the size of sexually dimorphic male traits have been demonstrated in several non-human species. It is often assumed that a similar relationship exists for human male faces, but clear evidence of an association between circulating testosterone levels and the size of masculine facial traits in adulthood is absent. Here we demonstrate that, after experimentally determined success in a competitive task, men with more a masculine facial structure show higher levels of circulating testosterone than men with less masculine faces. In participants randomly allocated to a 'winning' condition, testosterone was elevated relative to pre-task levels at 5 and 20 min post-task. In a control group of participants allocated to a 'losing' condition there were no significant differences between pre- and post-task testosterone. An index of facial masculinity based on the measurement of sexually dimorphic facial traits was not associated with pre-task (baseline) testosterone levels, but was associated with testosterone levels 5 and 20 min after success in the competitive task. These findings indicate that a man's facial structure may afford important information about the functioning of his endocrine system.     

Testosterone and cortisol release among Spanish soccer fans watching the 2010 World Cup final

This field study investigated the release of testosterone and cortisol of a vicarious winning experience in Spanish fans watching the finals between Spain and the Netherlands in the 2010 FIFA World Cup Soccer. Spanish fans (n = 50) watched the match with friends or family in a public place or at home and also participated in a control condition. Consistent with hypotheses, results revealed that testosterone and cortisol levels were higher when watching the match than on a control day. However, neither testosterone nor cortisol levels increased after the victory of the Spanish team. Moreover, the increase in testosterone secretion was not related to participants' sex, age or soccer fandom, but the increase in total cortisol secretion during the match was higher among men than among women and among fans that were younger. Also, increases in cortisol secretion were greater to the degree that people were a stronger fan of soccer. Level of fandom further appeared to account for the sex effect, but not for the age effect. Generally, the testosterone data from this study are in line with the challenge hypothesis, as testosterone levels of watchers increased to prepare their organism to defend or enhance their social status. The cortisol data from this study are in line with social self-preservation theory, as higher cortisol secretion among young and greater soccer fans suggests that especially they perceived that a negative outcome of the match would threaten their own social esteem.     

Between-group competition and human cooperation

A distinctive feature of human behaviour is the widespread occurrence of cooperation among unrelated individuals. Explaining the maintenance of costly within-group cooperation is a challenge because the incentive to free ride on the efforts of other group members is expected to lead to decay of cooperation. However, the costs of cooperation can be diminished or overcome when there is competition at a higher level of organizational hierarchy. Here we show that competition between groups resolves the paradigmatic 'public goods' social dilemma and increases within-group cooperation and overall productivity. Further, group competition intensifies the moral emotions of anger and guilt associated with violations of the cooperative norm. The results suggest an important role for group conflict in the evolution of human cooperation and moral emotions.     

Women's intercollegiate volleyball and tennis: Effects of warm-up, competition, and practice on saliva levels of cortisol and testosterone

In virtually all sports, participants “warm-up” prior to formal competition. Women athletes from a highly ranked varsity college volleyball team and, in a second study, a highly ranked varsity college tennis team gave saliva samples before warm-up, at mid-warm-up (volleyball) or after warm-up (tennis), and immediately after intercollegiate competition. For volleyball and tennis, warm-up was associated with a substantial elevation in saliva levels of testosterone which was carried over through the period of actual competition. Cortisol levels were relatively unchanged during warm-up, but typically rose during competition. Thus, as women prepare for athletic competition by warming up, testosterone levels rise in apparent anticipation of the coming contest and then remain high through the period of play. In volleyball and tennis, after-practice testosterone level was significantly higher than before-practice level, and practice session increases in testosterone (but not cortisol) were positively correlated with increases in testosterone during intercollegiate competition. When practice and competitive play share as yet undetermined key elements, individual differences in this endocrine response to “competition” appear stable across practice and intercollegiate competition.     

Effect of competition on salivary cortisol, immunoglobulin A, and upper respiratory tract infections in elite young soccer players

The present study examined the effect of a 20-day period of competition on salivary cortisol, mucosal immunity, and upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) in young male soccer players (n = 14). The players were monitored during the main under-19 Brazilian soccer championship, in which 7 matches were played in 20 days. Saliva samples were collected in the morning of each match and analyzed for cortisol and immunoglobulin A (IgA). Signs and symptoms of URTI were assessed across the study and a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was obtained for each match. Compared with match 1, a significant increase in player RPE was observed in matches 4-7 (p < 0.05). Significant (p < 0.05) increases in the reporting of URTI occurred between matches 2 and 3, and 6 and 7, and this was accompanied by significant decreases in salivary IgA levels. Significant (p < 0.05) correlations were also seen between the individual reports of URTI and the decrease in IgA levels in match 2 (r = -0.60) and match 6 (r = -0.65). These results suggest that decrements in mucosal immunity, as measured by salivary IgA concentrations, may lead to a greater incidence of URTI in elite young soccer players. It may be speculated that the physiological and psychological stressors imposed by training and competition in a short timeframe are major contributing factors to these responses. Thus, the monitoring of salivary IgA could provide a useful and noninvasive approach for predicting URTI occurrences in young athletes during short-term competitions, especially if frequent sampling and rapid measurements are made.     

Seasonal, circadian and episodic variations of human immunoreactive beta-MSH, ACTH and cortisol

The 24-hour profile of plasma levels of immunoreactive beta-MSH (IR-beta MSH), ACTH and cortisol was obtained at 15-min intervals in six normal males in summer and winter. In the radioimmunoassay used, dilution curves of human beta-MSH and human beta-LPH were not parallel. A seasonal variation in basal pituitary-adrenal secretion, with higher levels in winter than in summer, was demonstrated. A circadian rhythm was found to be significant for ACTH, IR-beta MSH and cortisol in all investigations. Whereas ACTH and cortisol patterns were largely concordant in all studies, there was a significant desynchronization of the circadian rhythm of IR-beta MSH as compared to ACTH in five cases. Eighty-three percent of the secretory spikes of cortisol but only 68% of the IR-beta MSH spikes were concomitant with an ACTH spike. Correlations between maximal levels of concomitant spikes were higher during the quiescent period of pituitary-adrenal secretion (22.00--04.00) for ACTH-cortisol whereas for ACTH-IR-beta MSH, highest correlations were found during the active early morning secretory phase (04.00--10.00). For the three plasma constituents studied, longer apparent half-lives were found to occur when the basal level before spiking was already elevated, suggesting that ACTH, beta-LPH and cortisol are secreted in bursts superimposed on a continuous basal secretion. Absolute increments of concentration appeared to be relatively independent of the level before spiking. It is suggested that the dissociations between ACTH and IR-beta MSH fluctuations in plasma observed here result from in vitro proteolysis of beta-LPH.     

Plasma Testosterone and Testosterone Binding Affinities in Men with Impotence,Oligospermia, Azoospermia,and Hypogonadism

Mean plasma testosterone levels (± S.D.), using Sephadex LH-20 and competitive protein binding, were 629 ± 160 ng/100 ml for a group of 27 normal adult men, 650 ± 205 ng/100 ml for 27 impotent men with normal secondary sex characteristics, 644 ± 178 ng/100 ml for 20 men with oligospermia, and 563 ± 125 ng/100 ml for 16 azoospermic men. None of these values differ significantly. For 21 men with clinical evidence of hypogonadism the mean plasma testosterone (± S.D.), at 177 ± 122 ng/100 ml, differed significantly (P < 0·001) from that of the normal men.The mean testosterone binding affinities (as measured by the reciprocal of the quantity of plasma needed to bind 50% of ³H-testosterone tracer) were similar for normal, impotent, and oligospermic men. Though lower for azoospermic men the difference was not significant (P >0·1). For 12 of the 16 hypogonadal males the testosterone binding affinity was normal, but raised binding affinities, similar to those found in normal adult females or prepubertal boys (about twice normal adult male levels), were found in four cases of delayed puberty. These findings help to explain why androgen therapy is usually useless in the treatment of impotence.     

Testosterone, cognition, and social status

What leads some people to perform better than others on certain cognitive tasks? One explanation involves individual differences in testosterone. Testosterone is associated with higher performance on spatial tests, and lower performance on verbal tests. However, a large literature suggests that testosterone only predicts behavior when status is in jeopardy. In the present study, we manipulated status before administering a spatial and verbal test. In a high-status position, high-testosterone individuals performed well on both tests, and blood pressure dropped. In a low-status position, high-testosterone individuals performed relatively poorly on both tests, and blood pressure did not change. These data suggest that differences in cognitive performance stem from an interaction between testosterone and the social situation.