Effects of combination birth control on estrous behavior in captive western lowland gorillas, Gorilla gorilla gorilla

Combination birth control pills (CBC) are one of the most common birth control methods used for western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) housed in zoos. Since zoos are interested in maintaining as many natural behaviors as possible, it is important to know how contraception may affect social and sexual interactions among group members. Although some data are available regarding the influence of the pill on sexual behavior in human females, no data are available on its effects on gorilla estrous behavior. We examined temporal trends of estrous, aggressive, affiliative, and activity budget data in four females on CBC at the Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago, IL. Behavioral data were collected using point sampling, all-occurrence records, and one-zero sampling. Estrous behavior occurred in less than 1% of observations. Using all-occurrence and one-zero sampling, estrous behavior occurred more frequently in week one of the cycle than any other week. The focal females exhibited affiliative, aggressive, and activity budget data evenly across their cycles. There were also no temporal trends in proximity to the silverback. Females varied by the types of estrous behavior they exhibited. We give a hormonal explanation for the prevalence of estrous behaviors in week one, and recommendations for effective behavioral sampling of gorilla estrous behavior.     

Variables influencing one-zero and instantaneous time sampling outcomes

Previous studies have shown that instantaneous time sampling results are more highly correlated with true duration than are one-zero sampling results. One-zero results, however, reflected a composite of both duration and frequency better than did instantaneous results. It is shown in this analysis that these outcomes are the logical result of the definitions of the two sampling modes. When interval lengths meet specific requirements, correct frequency counts can be obtained with either mode and systematic duration error with one-zero sampling can be eliminated by subtracting frequency from the number of intervals scored ‘one.’     

On the utility of aPost Hoc correction procedure for one-zero sampling duration estimates

Numerous previous studies have shown that one-zero sampling in direct observation systematically overestimates behavioral durations. Apost hoc correction procedure has been proposed and demonstrated to be capable of removing most of the systematic errors found in one-zero duration estimates. However, the remaining errors for some individual observation sessions can still be quite substantial in practical terms. In this paper, the condition under which thepost hoc correction procedure will produce results with negligible systematic errors in one-zero duration estimates is identified.     

An empirical evaluation of instantaneous and one-zero sampling of chimpanzee behavior

The behavior category in progress at theend of every 15 seconds of observation of chimpanzee behavior was recorded (instantaneous sampling) as was the occurrence or nonoccurrence of all defined categoriesduring every 15 second observation interval (one-zero sampling). The scores obtained using the above procedures were then correlated with the percent of net observation time, hourly rate, and mean bout duration of the behavior categories. One-zero sampling scores correlated very strongly with percent of net observation time and moderately with hourly rate and mean bout duration. Instantaneous sampling scores correlated very strongly with percent of net observation time and moderately with hourly rate and mean bout duration.     

神农架自然保护区川金丝猴投食群友好行为的初步观察

为探讨人工补食条件下川金丝猴(Rhinopithecus roxellana)的友好行为因补食产生的影响,2007年1～9月,采用行为取样法、扫描取样法和全事件记录法对湖北神农架自然保护区大龙潭投食猴群的友好行为进行了观察.共记录到11种友好行为,发生频次居前的是理毛、张嘴、拥抱、游戏、趋近.友好行为的发起者和承受者在性别间差异均不显著,但在年龄间差异均显著.在一雄多雌单元内发起者按次数多少为成年、少年、青年、亚成年猴,承受者的顺序亦如此.在全雄单元内发起者按次数多少为成年、少年、亚成年、青年猴,承受者的顺序亦如此.友好行为在单元内和单元间差异显著,单元内多于单元间.这在一定程度上说明川金丝猴社会单元内个体间的关系紧密,单元间的关系相对疏远.友好行为在繁殖和非繁殖季节差异不显著.     

An empirical comparison of one-zero,focal-animal,and instantaneous methods of sampling spontaneous primate social behavior

InJ. Altmann's review of methods used to sample spontaneously occurring social behavior, the one-zero method, which has a history of over 40 years of use with human and animal research, was severely criticized and was the only technique for which no use whatsoever was recommended. Substantial justification for this recommendation would raise serious questions about widely cited primate research from laboratories at Cambridge, Wisconsin, and elsewhere, where one-zero sampling has been often used.Altmann's nonempirical consideration of one-zero sampling is based upon assumptions which are sometimes unnecessarily limiting or probably incorrect and which are not supported by any data. An empirical comparison of one-zero sampling with two techniques considered useful byAltmann reveals contradictions in her recommendations and suggests that the one-zero method is a convenient way to combine the actual rate and duration of a spontaneously occurring behavior into a single index of social relatedness.     

Weaning of free-ranging infant baboons (Papio cynocephalus) as indicated by one-zero and instantaneous sampling of feeding

Weaning from the nipple and the use of solid foods were studied by one-zero and instantaneous sampling during the first year of life for 46 baboon infants. By the end of 1 year, infant baboons were nearing independence from the mother for nourishment and transportation and were competently foraging for insects and several plant foods. Using on-nipple as an index of waning dependence and the transition from riding on the mother to walking as a validity criterion, the two sampling methods yielded comparable scores which were valid indicants of developing independence.     

模拟生境中胎生蜥蜴的交配行为及其与环境因子的关系

摘要：2007年和2008年的5月,采用瞬时扫描取样法和全事件观察法,对模拟生境中胎生蜥蝎（Lacerta vivipara）的交配行为进行了详细的研究。结果表明,胎生蜥蜴交配行为的基本模式为：①追逐;②咬腹;③环抱;④交媾;⑤分离。其中各交配行为持续时间占总交配时间的百分比分别为：追逐占2. 35％,咬腹占0.51％...     

Evaluating methods to quantify spatial variation in the velocity of biological invasions

Invading species rarely spread homogeneously through a landscape and invasion patterns typically display irregular frontal boundaries as the invasion progresses through space. Those irregular patterns are generally produced by local environmental factors that may slow or accelerate movement of the frontal boundary. While there is an abundant literature on species distribution modelling methods that quantify local suitability for species establishment, comparatively few studies have examined methods for measuring the local velocity of invasions that can then be statistically analysed in relation to spatially variable environmental factors. Previous studies have used simulations to compare different methods for estimating the overall rate of spread of an invasion. We adopted a similar approach of simulating invasions that resemble two real case‐studies, both in terms of their spatial resolution (i.e. considering the size of one cell as one km) and their spatial extent (> 600 000 km²). Simulations were sampled to compare how different methods used to measure local spread rate, namely the neighbouring, nearest distance and Delaunay methods, perform for spatio‐temporal comparisons. We varied the assessment using three levels of complexity of the spatio‐temporal pattern of invasion, three sample sizes (500, 1000 and 2000 points), three different spatial sampling patterns (stratified, random, aggregated), three interpolation methods (generalized linear model, kriging, thin plate spline regression) and two spatio‐temporal modelling structures (trend surface analysis and boundary displacement), resulting in a total of 486 different scenarios. The thin plate spline regression interpolation method, in combination with trend surface analysis, was found to provide the most robust local spread rate quantification as it was able to reliably accommodate different sampling conditions and invasion patterns. This best approach was successfully applied to two case‐studies, the invasion of France by the horse‐chestnut leafminer Cameraria ohridella and by the bluetongue virus, generally in agreement with previously published values of spread rates. Potential avenues for further research are discussed.     

青藏高原异地半圈养藏羚警戒行为的适应性研究

行为是反映动物应对环境变化的最直接形式。动物可以根据周围环境条件的变化以及自身的生理状况来调整行为,异地放养是保护珍稀动物的有效方法,但必然会对其行为产生影响。为了探讨藏羚(Pantholops hodgsonii)对异地环境的行为学适应,对异地圈养藏羚的警戒行为进行了不同季节间的比较研究,采用全事件记录法和焦点动物取样法,记录和统计了异地圈养藏羚在冷季和暖季的警戒行为,进而推测其对人类干扰的行为适应性。研究结果表明,雌性和雄性藏羚的警戒时间及警戒比例(警戒时间占全天活动时间的比例)在暖季存在显著差异(警戒时间:Z=4.36,P<0.05;警戒比例:Z=4.559,P<0.05),而在冷季则无差异(警戒时间:Z=0.001,P>0.05;警戒比例:Z=0.0014,P>0.05);而季节差异对雌、雄性藏羚的警戒时间、警戒比例均具有极显著的影响(雄性-警戒时间:F=31.758,P<0.01;警戒比例:F=21.768,P<0.01;雌性-警戒时间:F=14.98,P<0.01;警戒比例:F=11.05,P<0.01);但是季节和性别对藏羚警戒行为的影响没有交互作用(Z=?0.576,P>0.05)。这些结果提示异地圈养藏羚警戒行为的变化可能是对陌生环境适应的结果。     

神农架川金丝猴投食群的社会行为谱

为探讨人工投食条件下川金丝猴的社会行为类型,2007年1月-2008年10月,采用行为取样法和全事件记录法对湖北神农架自然保护区投食猴群的社会行为进行观察。确定投食群有45种典型社会行为,其中打架、抢食、抱腰、吻背、爬伏、邀配与以往对笼养和野生川金丝猴的研究有差别。     

Sampling to determine density of arthropods in intensively grazed grasslands

Arthropod population field studies undertaken to understand the impacts and population dynamics of the target organism rely on sampling methods that provide accurate measurements of population density. Unsuitable methods may underestimate or provide widely variable measures of population density. The suitability of three vacuum sampling methods: a domestic vacuum cleaner, Vortis™, and blower-vac (G-vac), plus heat extraction of turves were compared for sampling common species in an intensively grazed irrigated dairy pasture. Each method used a different approach to sampling with the number of samples per method based on protocols that had been used in grasslands. Overall, for adults of the weevil Listronotus bonariensis, no method provided a consistently high mean density, while for adults of the weevil Sitona obsoletus, the vacuum cleaner and turf heat extraction methods gave generally higher mean densities. For predatory beetles and lacewings, heat extraction was the most effective for density measurements, while for ladybirds and spiders, the Vortis™ provided the best estimate of mean density. Increasing pasture dry matter (kg Dm/ha) generally had a significant negative effect on S. obsoletus density but not for L. bonariensis. While no method was consistently superior than another, the vacuum cleaner and heat extraction methods generally provided higher mean densities. The G-vac generally produced the lowest density estimates, but the sampling protocol meant a larger collection area per unit effort and therefore the probability of detection was higher compared with the three other methods. In conclusion, the study showed that the optimal sampling method depends on the taxa targeted, and more than one method may be required to measure density and diversity of species in both natural and modified grasslands.     

Prey Selection by an Apex Predator: The Importance of Sampling Uncertainty

The impact of predation on prey populations has long been a focus of ecologists, but a firm understanding of the factors influencing prey selection, a key predictor of that impact, remains elusive. High levels of variability observed in prey selection may reflect true differences in the ecology of different communities but might also reflect a failure to deal adequately with uncertainties in the underlying data. Indeed, our review showed that less than 10% of studies of European wolf predation accounted for sampling uncertainty. Here, we relate annual variability in wolf diet to prey availability and examine temporal patterns in prey selection; in particular, we identify how considering uncertainty alters conclusions regarding prey selection.Over nine years, we collected 1,974 wolf scats and conducted drive censuses of ungulates in Alpe di Catenaia, Italy. We bootstrapped scat and census data within years to construct confidence intervals around estimates of prey use, availability and selection. Wolf diet was dominated by boar (61.5±3.90 [SE] % of biomass eaten) and roe deer (33.7±3.61%). Temporal patterns of prey densities revealed that the proportion of roe deer in wolf diet peaked when boar densities were low, not when roe deer densities were highest. Considering only the two dominant prey types, Manly''s standardized selection index using all data across years indicated selection for boar (mean = 0.73±0.023). However, sampling error resulted in wide confidence intervals around estimates of prey selection. Thus, despite considerable variation in yearly estimates, confidence intervals for all years overlapped. Failing to consider such uncertainty could lead erroneously to the assumption of differences in prey selection among years. This study highlights the importance of considering temporal variation in relative prey availability and accounting for sampling uncertainty when interpreting the results of dietary studies.     

笼养东北虎行为的时间分配

1998 年4 月至2001 年3 月, 采用瞬时扫描取样法和全事件取样法对哈尔滨动物园的4 只笼养东北虎的活动规律进行了研究。结果表明, 笼养东北虎在全年的昼夜行为时间分配表现为睡眠所占比值最多; 其次是卧息和活动; 摄食和其它行为(包括饮水、排尿、排粪、修饰、嗅闻、嬉戏、站立、直立、发声等) 最少。在不同季节笼养东北虎的活动变化规律基本相似, 一昼夜的睡眠、运动和卧息均有两个高峰期, 但高峰期出现和持续的时间有所差异。睡眠的高峰期在10 : 00～14 : 00 和20 : 00 至次日06 : 00 , 活动的高峰期在05 : 00～10 : 00 和14 : 00～17 : 00 , 卧息的高峰期在05 : 00～10 : 00 和13 : 00～20 : 00 , 摄食仅在16 : 00～20 : 00 有一个高峰期。冬季(12～2 月) 与春(3～5 月) 、夏(6～8 月) 、秋季(9～11 月) 相比, 东北虎在白昼睡眠的时间显著减少,夜晚则显著增多。     

怒江河谷栗喉蜂虎的繁殖行为观察

2007年3月26日—7月16日,采用典型野外记录法和所有事件取样法对云南省保山市道街怒江河谷栗喉蜂虎繁殖行为进行了观察。结果表明：1）产卵期雄性栗喉蜂虎求偶喂食的食物以蜻蜓目和膜翅目昆虫为主,占83.56%;雌鸟接受喂食的可能性为96.83%,接受喂食后仅有17.49%的雌鸟与雄鸟进行交配。2）在孵卵期昼间,雄鸟每次坐巢的时间为（23.5&#61617;21.6）min,每日坐巢的时间占54.4%;雌鸟每次坐巢的时间为（25.8&#61617;11.5）min,每日坐巢的时间占42.1%,雌雄鸟每次坐巢的时间无明显差异。3）幼雏出壳后亲鸟对幼雏的暖雏时间逐日减少,至第20 d亲鸟不再暖雏。栗喉蜂虎的育雏期为29～33 d,在繁殖过程中帮助喂食的鸟确实能提高被助鸟的繁殖成功率。     

Testing a highly replicable and standardized method to rapidly assess seed removal probabilities

Seed removal can result in either seed predation or dispersal and is therefore an indicator of important ecosystem functions. To better understand how these variable processes are affected by environmental changes, rapid and reliable assessments with high temporal and spatial replication are needed. We address this need by testing the application of a rapid ecosystem function assessment (REFA) method to investigate seed removal in habitats with differing land use intensity. We recorded seed removal hourly over eight hours at 301 sites in five habitat types in three urban regions in Germany. We calculated seed removal rates per sampling period, traditionally used in seed removal studies, as well as instantaneous seed removal probabilities based on hourly sampling. Across regions, seed removal probabilities and rates were lowest in arable fields, a habitat type with high land-use intensity. Except in urban sealed areas, temperature had a negative effect on seed removal. Additional Cox hazard regressions suggest invertebrates as the main seed removing animals in arable fields, whereas vertebrates were likely removers in other habitat types. We confirm that seed removal is strongly negatively affected by human disturbance, indicating that the tested method is appropriate in different settings. We were able to recognize patterns in highly variable data and the method also has the advantages of low cost, high replication and high temporal resolution. However, there is a trade-off between the high temporal-resolution of instantaneous seed removal probabilities and the sampling effort, but adjustments in the standardized setup can be made depending on the study. To further utilize the extensive data collection in the REFA method, we propose to combine instantaneous seed removal probabilities, seed removal rates and Cox hazard regressions of seed removal to provide complementary information on the extent and temporal patterns of seed removal and indications about potential seed removing guilds. Keywords: Seed predation, seed dispersal, seed removal, granivore, REFA     

Optimal behaviour sampling and autocorrelation curve: modelling data of farmed foxes

Behavioural investigations frequently make use of video recordings. In a typical study, behaviour is recorded during a 24-h period using instantaneous sampling, a method whereby consecutive samples taken from the same animal are autocorrelated. This study sought to model the autocorrelation function and to evaluate the optimal sampling interval for recording periods of different length in farmed blue foxes. The data were based on video recordings. The autocorrelation was found to have two components: short-range and long-range. The range of the short-range component was from 2 to 4 min, implying that an animal continues the same operation without interruption for several minutes. The duration of the long-range component was from 20 to 75 min and was affected by the animals mental state. The optimal sampling interval was not the same for all the behaviours studied and, moreover, depended on the length of the recording period. If the recording period lasted for 3 to 5 days, the optimal sampling interval was from 10 to 15 min; if, however, there was only one recording day, the optimal sampling interval was from 4 to 6 min.     

小兴安岭阔叶红松林木本植物种-面积关系

种-面积关系研究是了解植物群落结构的重要途径,是群落生态学的基本问题。不同的研究方法对种-面积关系影响很大。利用黑龙江省小兴安岭两个10.4 hm2样地和5个1.0 hm2样地的调查数据,采用移动窗口法确定各样地的最小取样面积,避免了巢式取样法及随机样方法的不足。并采用4种种-面积关系模型进行拟合,评价各关系模型的适合度。在此基础上,基于最小面积进行模拟随机取样,探讨取样大小对物种数估计精度的影响。研究结果表明:由于拟合曲线模型的适用性及曲线外推可靠性问题的存在,采用拟合曲线的方法所估计的最小面积与实际值偏差较大。实际调查得到的各样地最小面积40 m×40 m—45 m×45 m,说明小兴安岭地区阔叶红松林群落所需的最小面积基本一致,但各样地群落结构的差异却在对取样数量的要求上体现出来。其中丰林与大亮子河样地物种数分布相对均匀,所需最小样方数量较少;而方正与胜山样地物种数分布异质性较大,差异的机理还有待于进一步研究。     

Grass thrips (Anaphothrips obscurus) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) population dynamics and sampling method comparison in timothy

Sampling studies were conducted on grass thrips, Anaphothrips obscurus (Müller) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), in timothy, Phleum pratense L. These studies were used to compare the occurrence of brachypterous and macropterous thrips across sampling methods, seasons, and time of day. Information about the population dynamics of this thrips was also revealed. Three absolute and two relative methods were tested at three different dates within a season and three different daily times during four harvest periods. Thrips were counted and different phenotypes were recorded from one of the absolute methods. Absolute methods were the most similar to one another over time of day and within seasonal dates. Relative methods varied in assessing thrips population dynamics over time of day and within seasonal dates. Based on thrips collected from the plant and sticky card counts, macropterous individuals increased in the spring and summer. Thrips aerially dispersed in the summer. An absolute method, the beat cup method (rapping timothy inside a plastic cup), was among the least variable sampling methods and was faster than direct observations. These findings parallel other studies, documenting the commonality of diel and diurnal effects on sampled arthropod abundance and the seasonal effects on population abundance and structure. These studies also demonstrate that estimated population abundance can be markedly affected by temporal patterns as well as shifting adult phenotypes.     

Properties of one-zero scores in observational studies of primate social behavior: The effect of assumptions on empirical analyses

Empirical analyses of techniques for observing spontaneous social behavior have been guided by implicit assumptions about the techniques’ validity, reliability, and comparability. The actual duration and actual frequency of a behavior have been used as intuitive standards of validity. Noncorrespondence among absolute values obtained from these measures and from one-zero scores has been taken to mean that one-zero scores are invalid. An analysis of macaque and gelada grooming relationships demonstrated how unjustified assumptions about absolute values can affect conclusions. A statistical comparison of four types of observation scores, and a multiple-regression analysis of one-zero scores, contradicted assumptions made previously about reliability and validity. The four methods were comparable and all were reasonably accurate.