Does melanin affect the low LET radiation response of Cloudman S91 mouse melanoma cell lines?

Melanin contains melanin-free radicals and can both absorb and produce additional free radicals and active oxygen species on exposure to various stimuli. Yet its role in the radiation responses of malignant melanoma has been little studied. In this report, three subclones of Cloudman S91 mouse melanoma clone PC1A varying in constitutive melanin content were compared with respect to killing by gamma irradiation. Radiation responses correlated with melanin content. The least melanotic line, S91/amel, was most sensitive and the most melanotic line, S91/I3, was most resistant. Curve fitting using the linear-quadratic model suggests that S91/amel is killed only by single event inactivations; S91/I3, only by double event inactivations; and S91/M1B, with intermediate melanin and radiation response, by both types of inactivations. Split dose experiments confirmed a lack of immediate split dose recovery in S91/amel and its existence in S91/I3. Potentially lethal damage and its repair could be demonstrated in both S91/amel and S91/I3. Double strand break (DSB) induction was evaluated as a function of gamma ray dose in DNA of S91/I3 and S91/amel, as well as in EMT6, a mouse mammary cancer line that lacks tyrosinase and melanin. The rates of induction were proportional to cellular melanization, i.e., the rate of DSB induction was greatest in S91/I3, least in EMT6. Levels of thioredoxin reductase (TR), glutathione reductase (GR), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) were determined in S91/amel and S91/I3. TR was the same in both cell lines, while the other three enzymes were 3- to 4-fold lower in S91/amel.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

A radiation resistance factor in cultured Cloudman S91 mouse melanoma cells.

The gamma-ray survival of a radiation-sensitive amelanotic subclone of Cloudman S91 mouse melanoma, S91/amel, is increased by the presence in the tissue culture dishes of heavily irradiated cells from the same cell line (amel-HRCells) and from clonally related melanotic S91/I3 radioresistant cells (I3-HRCells). The D0 of the target S91/amel cells increases from 1.25 to 2.08 Gy in the presence of 60,000 heavily irradiated S91/amel cells per dish. The presence of I3-HRCells in dishes of target S91/I3 cells does not increase their radioresistance. Comparable numbers of I3-HRCells are more effective than amel-HRCells at increasing survival of target S91/amel cells irradiated with 3 Gy of gamma rays. Conditioned medium from the S91 melanoma cells also increases the radioresistance of S91/amel, but is not as effective as the HRCells. Unirradiated cells can condition the medium as effectively as irradiated cells. It is concluded that the radiosensitive mouse melanoma cell line is made significantly more resistant by a diffusible cellular factor(s) elaborated more proficiently by radiation-resistant cells.     

Melanin: A Two Edged Sword?

Melanin is both photosensitizer and photoprotector. Skin cancer rates decrease with increasing constitutive pigmentation, yet the pigment has been shown to be photoreactive and capable of producing damaging reactive oxygen species. We utilized model systems of related cells or similar cell type that vary in constitutive and in induced pigment. Induction of eumelanin in Cloudman S91 mouse melanoma cells leads to less UV-induced killing and to less mutation induction at the ouabain locus (Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase). Pigmented mouse melanocytes, melan-b (brown) and melan-a (black) were slightly less sensitive than melan-c (albino) melanocytes to killing after UVC and UVA but were more sensitive to killing after UVB and UVB + UVA. Pigment had a small sensitizing effect on pyrimidine dimer DNA damage in both the melanoma cells and the melanocytes. The lack of consistency in these results suggests that intracellular pigment may disregulate the milieu intérieur resulting in end effects that are unrelated to the original genomic damage.     

The UVB-induced synthesis of vitamin D3 and 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (calcitriol) in organotypic cultures of keratinocytes: effectiveness of the narrowband Philips TL-01 lamp (311 nm)

Both calcitriol and UVB radiation exert potent antipsoriatic effects. We hypothesize that the therapeutical effect of UVB radiation may be attributed at least in part to UVB-triggered cutaneous synthesis of calcitriol. The optimum wavelength for initiation of the vitamin D(3) pathway was found to be in the range of 300+/-5 nm in vitro and in vivo. The narrowband Philips TL-01 lamp which is commonly used as UVB source for phototherapy of psoriasis has maximum spectral irradiance at around 311 nm which is presumed to be, however, of lesser importance in photochemical activation of the vitamin D(3) pathway. The aim of this study was to compare the vitamin D(3) and calcitriol-inducing potential of UVB from the TL-01 lamp with that of monochromatic UVB at 300+/-2.5 nm and 310+/-2.5 nm in organotypic cultures of keratinocytes supplemented with 25 microM 7-DHC. We found that maximum calcitriol-generating capacity of the TL-01 lamp at 500 mJ/cm(2) and 16 h after irradiation still amounts up to 44% of that found after monochromatic irradiation at 300+/-2.5 nm and 30 mJ/cm(2). Thus, the antipsoriatic effect of UVB emitted from the TL-01 lamp may, at least in part, based on the antiproliferative and prodifferentiative action of newly synthesized calcitriol on epidermal keratinocytes.     

A comparative study of the effect of pigment on drug toxicity in human choroidal melanocytes and retinal pigment epithelial cells

The aim of this study was to investigate whether the presence of pigment affects the sensitivity of pigmented cells of the eye, retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and choroidal melanocytes (CMs) to the cytotoxic effects of xenobiotic drugs. Two approaches were used to compare pigmented versus unpigmented cells: RPE cells were repigmented by phagocytosis of synthetic melanin; UVB irradiation was used to induce an increase in pigment in both RPE and CMs. Three drugs known to induce toxicity in the eye, tamoxifen, chloroquine and thioridazine, were used to assess the sensitivity of cells to xenobiotic drugs. RPE cells were more resistant than CMs to the cytotoxic effects of all three drugs by a factor of 5-fold for tamoxifen, 7-fold for thioridazine and 30-fold for chloroquine. When RPE cells were repigmented using synthetic melanin, their sensitivity to tamoxifen was unchanged, they showed a slightly improved response to thioridazine (after 3 days of incubation with this drug), but they showed greatly increased toxicity to chloroquine (after 1 and 3 days of exposure to the drug), suggesting accumulation of this latter drug on the synthetic melanin. UVB irradiation was used to achieve an increase in the pigment content of both RPE and CMs. CMs were much more sensitive to UVB than RPE cells. CMs appeared to synthesise pigment via DOPA oxidase activity; RPE cells showed an increase in fluorescent material independent of any detectable DOPA oxidase activity. Irrespective of the nature of the pigment that UVB induced in melanocytes and RPE cells, their subsequent response to thioridazine and chloroquine was unchanged by the presence of this pigment.     

UV light killing efficacy of fluorescent protein‐expressing cancer cells in vitro and in vivo

We investigated the cell‐killing efficacy of UV light on cancer cells expressing GFP in the nucleus and RFP in the cytoplasm (dual‐color cells). After exposure to various doses of UVA, UVB, or UVC, apoptotic and viable cells were quantitated under fluorescence microscopy using dual‐color 143B human osteosarcoma cells, HT‐1080 human fibrosarcoma cells, Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC), and XPA‐1 human pancreatic cancer cells in vitro. UV‐induced cancer cell death was wave‐length and dose dependent, as well as cell‐line dependent. After UVA exposure, most cells were viable even when the UV dose was increased up to 200 J/m². With UVB irradiation, cell death was observed with irradiation at 50 J/m². For UVC, as little as 25 J/m² UVC irradiation killed approximately 70% of the 143B dual‐color cells. This dose of UVB or UVA had almost no effect on the cancer cells. UV‐induced cancer cell death varied among the cell lines. Cell death began about 4 h after irradiation and continued until 10 h after irradiation. UVC exposure also suppressed cancer cell growth in nude mice in a model of minimal residual cancer (MRC). No apparent side effects of UVC exposure were observed. This study opens up the possibility of UVC treatment for MRC after surgical resection. J. Cell. Biochem. 110: 1439–1446, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The UVB-induced synthesis of vitamin D3 and 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (calcitriol) in organotypic cultures of keratinocytes: Effectiveness of the narrowband Philips TL-01 lamp (311 nm)

Both calcitriol and UVB radiation exert potent antipsoriatic effects. We hypothesize that the therapeutical effect of UVB radiation may be attributed at least in part to UVB-triggered cutaneous synthesis of calcitriol. The optimum wavelength for initiation of the vitamin D₃ pathway was found to be in the range of 300 ± 5 nm in vitro and in vivo. The narrowband Philips TL-01 lamp which is commonly used as UVB source for phototherapy of psoriasis has maximum spectral irradiance at around 311 nm which is presumed to be, however, of lesser importance in photochemical activation of the vitamin D₃ pathway. The aim of this study was to compare the vitamin D₃ and calcitriol-inducing potential of UVB from the TL-01 lamp with that of monochromatic UVB at 300 ± 2.5 nm and 310 ± 2.5 nm in organotypic cultures of keratinocytes supplemented with 25 μM 7-DHC. We found that maximum calcitriol-generating capacity of the TL-01 lamp at 500 mJ/cm² and 16 h after irradiation still amounts up to 44% of that found after monochromatic irradiation at 300 ± 2.5 nm and 30 mJ/cm². Thus, the antipsoriatic effect of UVB emitted from the TL-01 lamp may, at least in part, based on the antiproliferative and prodifferentiative action of newly synthesized calcitriol on epidermal keratinocytes.     

Phosphorylated mixed isomers of L-dopa increase melanin content in skins of Skh-2 pigmented hairless mice

Dopa phosphates, a new class of compounds, contain phosphate-ester linkages at the 3- and/or 4- positions of the phenylalanine ring of L-dopa. Dopa phosphates have been shown to increase pigment production in the epidermis of hairless mice. Groups of Skh-2 pigmented hairless mice were treated topically with various concentrations of dopa phosphates daily for five weeks. Half of each group received suberythemal UVB radiation three times weekly for four weeks from a bank of filtered FS20 lamps. UVB and dopa phosphates alone each caused a modest increase in epidermal pigmentation. However, treatment of mice with dopa phosphates plus UVB radiation resulted in a marked increase in pigmentation, greater than with either treatment alone. The optimal concentration of dopa phosphates was 0.01% (100 micrograms/ml Tris-glycerol buffer) whether or not they were applied in conjunction with UVB radiation. Histological analyses revealed that dopa phosphates and UVB radiation each caused an increase in the number of pigmented melanocytes in the epidermis. Control groups treated with Tris-glycerol buffer alone, or buffer containing L-phenylalanine or L-dopa showed no significant changes in pigmentation. Our results indicate that dopa phosphates stimulate the production of melanin and affect the development and distribution of melanocytes in the skin of Skh-2 mice. By these criteria, dopa phosphates and UVB act in a similar manner to increase melanin content in the skin. The processes may be related to those recently observed in cultured mouse melanoma cells where dopa phosphates are incorporated into melanin, presumably following enzymatic hydrolysis by cellular phosphatases with the resultant production of L-dopa and inorganic phosphate.     

Photoreactivation implicates cyclobutane dimers as the major promutagenic UVB lesions in yeast.

Previously we compared the mutational specificities of polychromatic UVB (285-320 nm) and UVC (254 nm) light in the SUP4-o gene of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Striking similarities in the types and distributions of induced SUP4-o mutations were consistent with roles for cyclobutane dimers and pyrimidine(6-4)pyrimidone photoproducts in mutation induction by UVB. To assess the relative importance of cyclobutane dimers, we have now examined the effect of photoreactivation (PR), which specifically reverses these lesions, on UVB and UVC induction of SUP4-o mutations. PR reduced the frequencies of both UVB and UVC mutagenesis by approximately 75%. Collections of 138 and 158 SUP4-o mutants induced by treatment with UVB plus PR or UVC plus PR, respectively, were characterized by DNA sequencing and the results were compared to those for 208 UVB and 211 UVC-induced mutants analyzed earlier. PR decreased the frequency of UVB-induced G.C----A.T transitions by 85%, diminished the substitution frequencies at individual sites by 64% on average, and reduced the mutation frequencies at the five UVB hotspots by 87%. A more detailed examination revealed that the transition frequencies at the 3' base of 5'-TC-3' and 5'-CC-3' sequences were decreased by 90% and 72%, respectively. Finally, PR appeared to occur to the same extent on both the transcribed and non-transcribed strands of SUP4-o. Similar results were obtained for PR following UVC irradiation. Our findings indicate that cyclobutane dimers are responsible for the majority of UVB mutagenesis in yeast.     

Induction of DNA-protein crosslinks in melanotic cloudman S91 mouse melanoma cells and EMT6 mouse mammary carcinoma cells by monochromatic 254 and 405 nm light

The rates of induction of DNA-protein crosslinks (DPC) by monochromatic radiation at 254 and 405 nm were compared in melanotic S91 mouse melanoma cells and EMT6 mouse mammary carcinoma cells. At 254 nm, the rates of induction of DPC are the same in the two cell lines, whereas, at 405 nm, the rate of induction of DPC in the melanotic cells is considerably less than that in the nonmelanotic cells. Since the major difference in the two cell lines with respect to absorption is melanin, the latter finding implies that intracellular melanin can protect against this DNA damage caused by a component of environmental carcinogenic solar radiation.     

Ultraviolet radiation induces dose-dependent pigment dispersion in crustacean chromatophores

Pigment dispersion in chromatophores as a response to UV radiation was investigated in two species of crustaceans, the crab Chasmagnathus granulata and the shrimp Palaemonetes argentinus. Eyestalkless crabs and shrimps maintained on either a black or a white background were irradiated with different UV bands. In eyestalkless crabs the significant minimal effective dose inducing pigment dispersion was 0.42 J/cm(2) for UVA and 2.15 J/cm(2) for UVB. Maximal response was achieved with 10.0 J/cm(2) UVA and 8.6 J/cm(2) UVB. UVA was more effective than UVB in inducing pigment dispersion. Soon after UV exposure, melanophores once again reached the initial stage of pigment aggregation after 45 min. Aggregated erythrophores of shrimps adapted to a white background showed significant pigment dispersion with 2.5 J/cm(2) UVA and 0.29 J/cm(2) UVC. Dispersed erythrophores of shrimps adapted to a black background did not show any significant response to UVA, UVB or UVC radiation. UVB did not induce any significant pigment dispersion in shrimps adapted to either a white or a black background. As opposed to the tanning response, which only protects against future UV exposure, the pigment dispersion response could be an important agent protecting against the harmful effects of UV radiation exposure.     

Purification and physiochemical characterization of melanin pigment from Klebsiella sp. GSK

The bacterium capable of producing melanin pigment in the presence of L-tyrosine was isolated from crop field soil sample and identified as Klebsiella sp. GSK based on morphological, biochemical and 16S rDNA sequencing. The polymerization of this pigment occurs outside the cell wall, which has granular structure as melanin ghosts. The chemical characterization of pigment particles showed acid resistant, alkali soluble, insoluble in most of the organic solvents and water. The pigment gets bleached when subjected to the action of oxidants as well as reductants. This pigment was precipitated with FeCl3, ammoniacal silver nitrate and potassium ferricynide. The pigment showed high absorbance in the UV region and decreased absorbance when shifted towards the visible region. The melanin pigment was further charecterized by FT-IR and EPR spectroscopy. A key enzyme 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid hydroxylase catalyzes the formation of melanin pigment by hydroxylation of L-tyrosine was detected in this bacterium. Inhibition studies with specific inhibitor kojic acid and KCN proved that melanin is synthesized by DOPA-Melanin pathway.     

Differential apoptotic pathways in human keratinocyte HaCaT cells exposed to UVB and UVC

The induction of apoptosis in keratinocytes by ultraviolet (UV)-irradiation is considered to be a protective function against skin cancer. UV-induced DNA damage is a crucial event in UVB- and UVC-mediated apoptosis. However, the differences between the UVB- and UVC-induced apoptotic pathways remain unclear. Here we examine the differential mechanisms by which UVB and UVC irradiations induce keratinocyte apoptosis using human keratinocyte HaCaT cells. Differences in the production of (6-4)photoproducts ((6-4)PPs) and cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) were measured following irradiation with UVB and UVC at doses causing the same extent of apoptotic cell death. In addition, main apoptotic features, such as caspase activation and its regulation, were compared between UVB- and UVC-induced apoptosis. Exposures of 500 J/m² UVB and 100 J/m² UVC resulted in apoptosis to almost the same extent. At these apoptotic doses, the amounts of both (6-4)PPs and CPDs were significantly larger in the case of UVC irradiation than UVB irradiation; in parallel, the release of cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO and the activation of caspases-9 following UVC irradiation were greater than after UVB irradiation. Importantly, caspase-8 activation occurred only in UVB-irradiated cells. Furthermore, the activation of caspase-8 was not inhibited by caspases-9 and -3 specific tetrapeptide inhibitors, indicating that the caspase-8 cleavage is not due to feedback from activation of caspases-9 and -3. Thus, these results clearly suggest that the reason apoptosis is induced to the same extent by UVB irradiation as by UVC irradiation, despite the lower production of photoproducts in DNA by UVB irradiation, is attributable to the additional activation of the caspase-8 pathway. Thus, UVB irradiation induces apoptosis through both mitochondrial (intrinsic) and caspase-8 activation (extrinsic) pathways, while UVC induces apoptosis only via the intrinsic pathway.     

Effects of Ultraviolet Irradiation on the Cell Cycle

Cultured mouse Cloudman melanoma cells, EMT6 breast carcinoma cells, and 3T3 fibroblasts all accumulated in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle when exposed to UVB radiation. The effects of UVB were maximal at 20–30 mJ/cm² for all three cell lines, and could be observed by flow cytometry as early as 12 hr post irradiation. It has been known since the mid-1970s that MSH receptor binding activity is highest on Cloudman melanoma cells when they are in the G2/M phase of their cycle. Here we show that either UVB irradiation or synchronization of Cloudman cells with colchicine results in a stimulation of MSH binding within 24 hr following treatment, a time when both treatments have resulted in accumulation of cells in the G2/M phase of the cycle. Furthermore, the two treatments performed together on the melanoma cells stimulated MSH receptor activity to the same extent as either treatment performed separately, suggesting that each may be influencing MSH receptor activity solely through a G2/M accumulation of cells. Together, these results raise the possibility that an increase in the number of cells in the G2 phase of the cell cycle is a generalized cellular response to injury, such as UV irradiation. However, in the case of pigment cells this response includes a mechanism for increasing melanin formation, i.e., increased MSH receptor activity. Should this be the case, similar G2/M “injury responses” of other cell types might be expected, consistent with their differentiated phenotypes.     

Ultraviolet Radiation Induces Dose‐Dependent Pigment Dispersion in Crustacean Chromatophores

Pigment dispersion in chromatophores as a response to UV radiation was investigated in two species of crustaceans, the crab Chasmagnathus granulata and the shrimp Palaemonetes argentinus. Eyestalkless crabs and shrimps maintained on either a black or a white background were irradiated with different UV bands. In eyestalkless crabs the significant minimal effective dose inducing pigment dispersion was 0.42 J/cm² for UVA and 2.15 J/cm² for UVB. Maximal response was achieved with 10.0 J/cm² UVA and 8.6 J/cm² UVB. UVA was more effective than UVB in inducing pigment dispersion. Soon after UV exposure, melanophores once again reached the initial stage of pigment aggregation after 45 min. Aggregated erythrophores of shrimps adapted to a white background showed significant pigment dispersion with 2.5 J/cm² UVA and 0.29 J/cm² UVC. Dispersed erythrophores of shrimps adapted to a black background did not show any significant response to UVA, UVB or UVC radiation. UVB did not induce any significant pigment dispersion in shrimps adapted to either a white or a black background. As opposed to the tanning response, which only protects against future UV exposure, the pigment dispersion response could be an important agent protecting against the harmful effects of UV radiation exposure.     

Protective action of bacterial melanin against DNA damage in full UV spectrums by a sensitive plasmid-based noncellular system

The purpose of this study was to introduce a simple and sensitive plasmid-based noncellular system to evaluate the photoprotection of bacterial melanin on DNA damage against ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Plasmid DNA was used to assess the role of melanin in different ranges of UV using a series of in vitro assays. Fluorometric measurements suggested that melanin could efficiently scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by UVA irradiation in solution, and the scavenging capability was proportional to the pigment concentration. The protective effect of melanin on plasmid DNA under UVB irradiation was confirmed by the transformation efficiency of the protected DNA, which was at least 10-fold higher than that of the non melanin protected DNA. After the UVC irradiation, the DNA damage of strand breaks was quantified by laser-induced fluorescence capillary electrophoresis. The percentage of supercoiled plasmid was reduced from 80% to less than 5% without melanin protection. In contrast, the percentage of supercoiled DNA only decreased to about 40% in the presence of melanin under the same radiation conditions. All these results demonstrated that bacterial melanin did protect DNA from being damaged throughout full UV irradiation. This system, avoiding the potential interference by cellular DNA repair machinery and intracellular substances, may provide a sensitive in vitro means to evaluate the functions of melanin and other photoprotective compounds from different sources.     

The greater lethality of UVB radiation to cultured human cells is associated with the specific activation of a DNA damage-independent signaling pathway

UV radiation causes cell death through the activation of various intracellular signaling molecules in both DNA damage-dependent and -independent manners. The ability of middle-wavelength UV (UVB) radiation to form DNA photoproducts is less than that of short-wavelength UV (UVC) radiation; however, the differences between UVB and UVC radiation in the extent of DNA damage-independent signaling and its contribution to cell death have not been well characterized. When cells were irradiated with UVB or UVC radiation at doses that generated equivalent amounts of DNA photoproducts, UVB radiation induced more clonogenic cell death, apoptotic cells, mitochondrial cytochrome C release, and intracellular oxidative stress. Among the signaling molecules examined, levels of p53 phosphorylated at Ser-392 and p38 were higher in UVB-irradiated cells than in UVC-irradiated cells. Both phosphorylations were reduced by treating cells with an antioxidant. Furthermore, an inhibitor of p38 also blocked the phosphorylation of p53 at Ser-392. These results suggest that UVB radiation activates the p38 pathway through the generation of oxidative stress, which merges with the DNA p53 pathway by phosphorylation of p53 at ser392. This greater contribution of the DNA damage-independent pathway in UVB-irradiated cells may explain the greater lethality of UVB radiation.     

Ultraviolet radiation directly induces pigment production by cultured human melanocytes

In humans the major stimulus for cutaneous pigmentation is ultraviolet radiation (UVR). Little is known about the mechanism underlying this response, in part because of the complexity of interactions in whole epidermis. Using a recently developed culture system, human melanocytes were exposed daily to a physiologic range of UVR doses from a solar simulator. Responses were determined 24 hours after the last exposure. There was a dose-related increase in melanin content per cell and uptake of 14C-DOPA, accompanied by growth inhibition. Cells from donors of different racial origin gave proportionately similar increases in melanin, although there were approximately tenfold differences in basal values. Light and electron microscopy revealed UVR-stimulated increases in dendricity as well as melanosome number and degree of melanization, analogous to the well-recognized melanocyte changes following sun exposure of intact skin. Similar responses were seen with Cloudman S91 melanoma cells, although this murine cell line required lower UVR dosages and fewer exposures for maximal stimulation. These data establish that UVR is capable of directly stimulating melanogenesis. Because cyclic AMP elevation has been associated in some settings with increased pigment production by cultured melanocytes, preliminary experiments were conducted to see if the effects of UVR were mediated by cAMP. Both alpha-MSH and isobutylmethylxanthine (IBMX), as positive controls, caused a fourfold increase in cAMP level in human melanocytes and/or S91 cells, but following a dose of UVR sufficient to stimulate pigment production there was no change in cAMP level up to 4 hours after exposure. Thus it appears that the UVR-induced melanogenesis is mediated by cAMP-independent mechanisms.     

Endurance of the endolithic desert cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis under UVC radiation

Desert cyanobacteria of the genus Chroococcidiopsis are extremely resistant to desiccation and ionizing radiation. When an endolithic strain was exposed to UVC radiation cell lysis, genome damage, photosynthetic pigment bleaching and reduced photochemical performance occurred. Nevertheless, survivors were scored after UVC doses as high as 13?kJ/m² and their endurance ascribed to multicellular aggregates enveloped in thick envelopes, so that attenuated UVC radiation reached the inner cells. In addition, the accumulation of carotenoids contributed to UVC resistance by providing protection against oxidative stress. Finally, in survivors repair mechanisms were responsible for the recovery of the induced damage to genome and photosynthetic apparatus.