Temperature-dependent adjustment of the thermal stability of photosystem II in vivo: possible involvement of xanthophyll-cycle pigments

Moderately elevated temperatures induce a rapid increase in the heat and light resistance of photosystem II (PSII) in higher-plant leaves. This phenomenon was studied in intact potato leaves exposed to 35 °C for 2 h, using chlorophyll fluorometry, kinetic and difference spectrophotometry and photoacoustics. The 35 °C treatment was observed to cause energetic uncoupling between carotenoids and chlorophylls: (i) the steady-state chlorophyll fluorescence emission excited by a blue light beam (490 nm) was noticeably reduced as compared to fluorescence elicited by orange light (590 nm) and (ii) the quantum yield for photosynthetic oxygen evolution in blue light (400–500 nm) was preferentially reduced relative to the quantum yield measured in red light (590–710 nm). Analysis of the chlorophyll-fluorescence and light-absorption characteristics of the heated leaves showed numerous analogies with the fluorescence and absorption changes associated with the light-induced xanthophyll cycle activity, indicating that the carotenoid species involved in the heat-induced pigment uncoupling could be the xanthophyll violaxanthin. More precisely, the 35 °C treatment was observed to accelerate and amplify the non-photochemical quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence (in both moderate red light and strong white light) and to cause an increase in leaf absorbance in the blue-green spectral region near 520 nm, as do strong light treatments which induce the massive conversion of violaxanthin to zeaxanthin. Interestingly, short exposure of potato leaves to strong light also provoked a significant increase in the stability of PSII to heat stress. It was also observed that photosynthetic electron transport was considerably more inhibited by chilling temperatures in 35 °C-treated leaves than in untreated leaves. Further, pre-exposure of potato leaves to 35 °C markedly increased the amplitude and the rate of light-induced changes in leaf absorbance at 505 nm (indicative of xanthophyll cycle activity), suggesting the possibility that moderately elevated temperature increased the accessibility of violaxanthin to the membrane-located de-epoxidase. This was supported by the quantitative analysis of the xanthophyll-cycle pigments before and after the 35 °C treatment, showing light-independent accumulation of zeaxanthin during mild heat stress. Based on these results, we propose that the rapid adjustment of the heat resistance of PSII may involve a modification of the interaction between violaxanthin and the light-harvesting complexes of PSII. As a consequence, the thermoresistance of PSII could be enhanced either directly through a conformational change of PSII or indirectly via a carotenoid-dependent modulation of membrane lipid fluidity.Abbreviations and Symbols Fo and Fm initial and maximal level of chlorophyll fluorescence, respectively - Fv = Fm — Fo variable chlorophyll fluorescence - LHC(II) light-harvesting chlorophylla/b-protein complexes (of PSII) - photoacoustically measured quantum yield of photosynthetic oxygen evolution (in relative values) - _P fluorimetrically measured quantum yield of PSII photochemistry in the light - PFD photon flux density - q_E pH dependent quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence We thank Dr. J-L Montillet (CEA-Cadarache) for the use of his HPLC apparatus and Professor Y. Lemoine (University of Lille, France) for technical advice on HPLC.     

Phosphorylation of PS II polypeptides inhibits D1 protein-degradation and increases PS II stability

To study the significance of Photosystem (PS) II phosphorylation for the turnover of the D1 protein, phosphorylation was compared with the synthesis and content of the D1 protein in intact chloroplasts. As shown by radioactive labelling with [³²P_i] phosphorylation of PS II polypeptides was saturated at light intensities of 125 mol m^-2 s^-1. Under steady state conditions, in intact chloroplasts D1 protein, once it was phosphorylated, was neither dephosphorylated nor degraded in the light. D1 protein-synthesis was measured as incorporation of [¹⁴C] leucine. As shown by non-denaturing gel-electrophoresis followed by SDS-PAGE newly synthesised D1 protein was assembled to intact PS II-centres and no free D1 protein could be detected. D1 protein-synthesis was saturated at light intensities of 500 mol m^-2 s^-1. The content of D1 protein stayed stable even after illumination with 5000 mol m^-2 s^-1 showing that D1 protein-degradation was saturated at the same light intensities. The difference in the light saturation points of phosphorylation and of D1 protein-turnover indicates a complex regulation of D1 protein-turnover by phosphorylation. Separation of the phosphorylated and dephosphorylated D1 protein by LiDS-gelelectrophoresis combined with radioactive pulse-labelling with [¹⁴C] leucine and [³²P_i] revealed that D1 protein, synthesised under steady state conditions in the light, did not become phosphorylated but instead was rapidly degraded whereas the phosphorylated form of the D1 protein was not a good substrate for degradation. According to these observations phosphorylation of the D1 protein creates a pool of PS II centres which is not involved in D1 to these observations phosphorylation of the D1 protein creates a pool of PS II centres which is not involved in D1 protein-turnover. Fractionation of thylakoid membranes confirms that the phosphorylated, non-turning over pool of PS II-centres was located in the central regions of the grana, whereas PS II-centres involved in D1 protein-turnover were found exclusively in the stroma-lamellae and in the grana-margins.Abbreviations chl chlorophyll - F_v yield of variable fluorescence, difference between F_m, the maximal fluorescence yield at saturating light, when all reaction-centres are closed, and F_o, the fluorescence yield in the dark, when all reaction-centres are open - LHC light harvesting complex - PFD photon flux density - PS photosystem     

Autotrophic cells of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Synechocystis psbH</Emphasis> deletion mutant are deficient in synthesis of CP47 and accumulate inactive PS II core complexes

Cells of the psbH deletion mutant IC7 of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803 grown in the absence of glucose contain strongly reduced levels of chlorophyll when compared with cells grown in the presence of glucose, or compared with wild-type (WT) cells. Low-temperature fluorescence emission spectra revealed decreased content of both active PS II (Photosystem II) and PS I (Photosystem I) complexes. Analysis of thylakoid membrane complexes of IC7 by native electrophoresis showed a similar set of chlorophyll–proteins, namely a PS II core complex and trimeric and monomeric PS II complexes, as in WT. However, in contrast to WT, the ³⁵S-methionine protein labeling pattern of the mutant exhibited no preferential labeling of the D1 protein in the PS II core complexes, and the labeled D1 and D2 proteins accumulated predominantly in the PS II reaction center lacking CP47. The results show that in autotrophically grown cells of the psbH deletion mutant, selective D1 turnover is inhibited and synthesis of CP47 becomes a limiting step in the PS II assembly.     

D1 protein degradation during photoinhibition of intact leaves a modification of the D1 protein precedes degradation

Illumination of intact pumpkin leaves with high light led to severe photoinhibition of photosystem II with no net degradation of the D1 protein. Instead, however, a modified form of D1 protein with slightly slower electrophoretic mobility was induced with corresponding loss in the original form of the D1 protein. When the leaves were illuminated in the presence of chloramphenicol the modified form was degraded, which led to a decrease in the total amount of the D1 protein. Subfractionation of the thylakoid membranes further supported the conclusion that the novel form of the D1 protein was not a precursor but a high-light modified form that was subsequently degraded.     

Effect of dichromate on photosystem II activity in xanthophyll-deficient mutants of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

The photosystem II activity and energy dissipation was investigated when algal Chlamydomonas reinhardtii genotypes were exposed to dichromate toxicity effect. The exposure during 24 h to dichromate effect of two C. reinhardtii mutants having non-functional xanthophylls cycle, as npq1 zeaxanthin deficient and npq2 zeaxanthin accumulating, induced inhibition of PSII electron transport. After dichromate-induced toxicity, PSII functions of C. reinhardtii mutants were investigated under different light intensities. To determine dichromate toxicity and light intensity effect on PSII functional properties we investigated the change of energy dissipation via PSII electron transport, non-photochemical regulated and non-regulated energy dissipation according to Kramer et al. (Photosynth Res 79:209–218, 2004). We showed the dependency between dichromate toxicity and light-induced photoinhibition in algae deficient in xanthophyll cycle. When algal mutants missing xanthophylls cycle were exposed to dichromate toxicity and to high light intensity energy dissipation via non-regulated mechanism takes the most important pathway reaching the value of 80%. Therefore, the mutants npq1 and npq2 having non-functional xanthophylls cycle were more sensitive to dichromate toxic effects.     

Long-term drought stress induces structural and functional reorganization of photosystem II

Long-term drought stress on photosystem II (PSII) was studied in pea (Pisum sativum L.) seedlings. Drought stress (reduction of water content by 35–80%) led to a considerable depletion of the PSII core, and the remaining PSII complex appeared to be functional and reorganized, with a unit size (LHCP/PSII core) twofold greater than that of well-irrigated plants. By immunoblotting analysis of the PSII proteins from grana and stroma lamellae, the enhanced degradation of CP43 and D1 proteins was observed in water-stressed plants. Also, water stress caused increased phosphorylation of the PSII core and increased D1 protein synthesis. Water-stress-mediated increase in D1 synthesis did not occur when plants were exposed to photoinhibitory light. The depletion of the PSII core was essentially reversed when water-stressed plants grown at low visible irradiance were watered. We suggest that the syndrome caused by the effect of long-term water stress on photosynthesis is a combination of at least two events: a reduction in the number of active PSII centres caused by a physical destabilization of the PSII core and a PSII reorganization with enhanced D1 turnover to counteract the core depletion.Abbreviations Chl chlorophyll - CP43 and CP47 -carotene-Chla-proteins of PSII core - DCPIP 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol - DPC diphenylcarbazide - Fv/Fm the ratio of yield of variable fluorescence to yield of maximal fluorescence when all reaction centres are closed - LHC(P) light-harvesting complex (proteins) - Wc water content This work was supported by the Italian National Council of Research special grant RAISA, subproject 2 (paper No. 2179) on water stress B. Geiken was supported by the European program Human Capital and Mobility. We thank Dr. Roberto Barbato (Department of Biology, University of Padua, Italy) for generous gifts of various PSII antibodies.     

Determination of the PS I content of PS II core preparations using selective emission: A new emission of PS II at 780 nm

Routinely prepared PS II core samples are often contaminated by a significant (~ 1–5%) fraction of PS I, as well as related proteins. This contamination is of little importance in many experiments, but masks the optical behaviour of the deep red state in PS II, which absorbs in the same spectral range (700–730 nm) as PS I (Hughes et al. 2006). When contamination levels are less than ~ 1%, it becomes difficult to quantify the PS I related components by gel-based, chromatographic, circular dichroism or EPR techniques. We have developed a fluorescence-based technique, taking advantage of the distinctively different low-temperature emission characteristics of PS II and PS I when excited near 700 nm. The approach has the advantage of providing the relative concentration of the two photosystems in a single spectral measurement. A sensitivity limit of 0.01% PS I (or better) can be achieved. The procedure is applied to PS II core preparations from spinach and Thermosynechococcus vulcanus. Measurements made of T. vulcanus PS II preparations prepared by re-dissolving crystallised material indicate a low but measurable PS I related content. The analysis provides strong evidence for a previously unreported fluorescence of PS II cores peaking near 780 nm. The excitation dependence of this emission as well as its appearance in both low PS I cyanobacterial and plant based PS II core preparations suggests its association with the deep red state of PS II.     

Effects of photoinhibition on the PS II acceptor side including the endogenous high spin Fe2+ in thylakoids,PS II-membrane fragments and PS II core complexes

Effects of photoinhibition at 0 °C on the PS II acceptor side have been analyzed by comparative studies in isolated thylakoids, PS II membrane fragments and PS II core complexes from spinach under conditions where degradation of polypeptide(s) D1(D2) is highly retarded. The following results were obtained by measurements of the transient fluorescence quantum and oxygen yield, respectively, induced by a train of short flashes in dark-adapted samples: (a) in the control the decay of the fluorescence quantum yield is very rapid after the first flash, if the dark incubation was performed in the presence of 300 M K₃[Fe(CN)₆]; whereas, a characteristic binary oscillation was observed in the presence of 100 M phenyl-p-benzoquinone with a very fast relaxation after the even flashes (2nd, 4th. . . ) of the sequence; (b) illumination of the samples in the presence of K₃[Fe(CN)₆] for only 5 min with white light (180 W m^-2) largely eliminates the very fast fluorescence decay after the first flash due to Q_A ^- reoxidation by preoxidized endogenous non-heme Fe³⁺, while a smaller effect arises on the relaxation kinetics of the fluorescence transients induced by the subsequent flashes; (c) the extent of the normalized variable fluorescence due to the second (and subsequent) flash(es) declines in all sample types with a biphasic time dependence at longer illumination. The decay times of the fast (6–9 min) and the slow degradation component (60–75 min) are practically independent of the absence or presence of K₃[Fe(CN)₆] and of anaerobic and aerobic conditions during the photo-inhibitory treatment, while the relative extent of the fast decay component is higher under anaerobic conditions. (d) The relaxation kinetics of the variable fluorescence induced by the second (and subsequent) flash(es) become retarded due to photoinhibition, and (e) the oscillation pattern of the oxygen yield caused by a flash train is not drastically changed due to photoinhibition.Based on these findings, it is concluded that photoinhibition modifies the reaction pattern of the PS II acceptor side prior to protein degradation. The endogenous high spin Fe²⁺ located between Q_A and Q_B is shown to become highly susceptible to modification by photoinhibition in the presence of K₃[Fe(CN)₆] (and other exogenous acceptors), while the rate constant of Q_A ^- reoxidation by Q_B(Q_B ^-) and other acceptors (except the special reaction via Fe³⁺) is markedly less affected by a short photoinhibition. The equilibrium constant between Q_A ^- and Q_B(Q_B ^-) is not drastically changed as reflected by the damping parameters of the oscillation pattern of oxygen evolution.     

Drought-responsive mechanisms in rice genotypes with contrasting drought tolerance during reproductive stage

Water status is the main factor affecting rice production. In order to understand rice strategies in response to drought condition in the field, the drought-responsive mechanisms at the physiological and molecular levels were studied in two rice genotypes with contrasting susceptibility to drought stress at reproductive stage. After 20 d of drought treatment, the osmotic potential of leaves reduced 78% and 8% in drought susceptible rice cultivar Zhenshan97B and tolerant rice cultivar IRAT109, respectively. The panicle lengths had no obvious changes in drought stressed Zhenshan97B and IRAT109, suggesting that drought stress impose less effect on assimilate translocation from leaf to vegetative growth of panicles. IRAT109 showed more extensive deeper root growth that could be considered a second line of defense against drought stress. The C_i/C_a ratio exhibited enhancement over reduction of g_s in both cultivars, reflecting the non-stomatal limitation to photosynthesis occurred during drought stress. Orthophosphate dikinase, glycine dehydrogenase, ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco), glycine hydroxymethyltransferase and ATP synthase were down-regulated for Zhenshan97B in response to drought stress, suggesting the reduction of capacity of carbon assimilation in this rice cultivar. In drought-stressed IRAT109, transketolase, Rubisco were down-regulated, however, Rubisco activase and peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase, which might alleviate the damage on Rubisco by drought stress, were up-regulated. The increased abundances of chloroplastic superoxide dismutase [Cu-Zn] and dehydroascorbate reductase might provide antioxidant protection for IRAT109 against damage by dehydration.     

Inhibition of CO2-fixation and its effect on the activity of Photosystem II,on D1-protein synthesis and phosphorylation

To study the effects of limitations in the Calvin-cycle on Photosystem (PS) II function and on its repair by D1-protein turnover, glycerinaldehyde (DLGA) was applied to 1 h dark-adapted pea leaves via the petiole. The application resulted in a 90% inhibition of photosynthetic oxygen evolution after 90 min illumination at either 120 or 500 µmol m^–2 s^–1. In the control leaves an increase of light-dependent oxygen production to 147 and 171% was observed after 90 min illumination. According to chlorophyll fluorescence quenching analysis the inhibition of photosynthetic electron transport by DLGA led to a substantial increase in the reduction state of the primary quinone acceptor of PS II, QA, and to a rise in membrane energetisation. However, PS II functionality was hardly affected by DLGA at the low light intensity as indicated by the constant high yield of variable fluorescence, Fv/Fm. Only at 500 µmol m^–2 s^–1 a 15% loss of Fv/Fm was observed in the presence of DLGA indicating that inactivated PS II centres had accumulated. The control leaves also showed a slight loss of Fv/Fm which did not affect photosynthetic electron transport due to a faster reoxidation of QA. The relative stability of PS II function in the presence of DLGA could not be ascribed to an increased repair by the rapid turnover of the D1-protein. Radioactive pulse-labelling studies with [14C] leucine in combination with immunological determination of the protein content revealed that both synthesis and degradation of the protein were inhibited in DLGA-treated leaves whereas in the control leaves a stimulation of D1-protein turnover was observed. The changes of D1-protein turnover could be explained by differences in the occupancy state of the QB-binding niche. A relation between the phosphorylation status of the PS II polypeptides and the turnover of the D1-protein could not be established. As shown by radioactive labelling with [32P]i, addition of DLGA led to an increase in the phosphorylation level of the PS II polypeptides D1 and D2 at the low light intensity when compared to the non-treated control. At the higher light intensity the phosphorylation level of the PS II polypeptides in control and DLGA-treated leaves were identical in spite of the substantial differences in D1-protein turnover.     

Acceptor side photoinhibition in PS II: On the possible effects of the functional integrity of the PS II donor side on photoinhibition of stable charge separation

Photoinhibition under aerobic and anaerobic conditions was analyzed in O₂-evolving and in Tris-treated PS II-membrane fragments from spinach by measuring laser-flash-induced absorption changes at 826 nm reflecting the transient P680⁺ formation and the chlorophyll fluorescence lifetime. It was found that anaerobic photoinhibitory treatment leads in both types of samples to the appearence of two long-lived fluorescence components with lifetimes of 7 ns and 16 ns, respectively. The extent of these fluorescence kinetics depends on the state of the reaction center (open/closed) during the fluorescence measurements: it is drastically higher in the closed state. It is concluded that this long-lived fluorescence is mainly emitted from modified reaction centers with singly reduced Q_A(Q_A ^-). This suggests that the observation of long-lived fluorescence components cannot necessarily be taken as an indicator for reaction centers with missing or doubly reduced and protonated Q_A (Q_AH₂). Time-resolved measurements of 826 nm absorption changes show that the rate of photoinhibition of the stable charge separation (P680^*Q_A P680⁺Q_A ^-), is nearly the same in O₂-evolving and in Tris-treated PS II-membrane fragments. This finding is difficult to understand within the framework of the Q_AH₂-mechanism for photoinhibition of stable charge separation because in that case the rate of photoinhibition should strongly depend on the functional integrity of the donor side of PS II. Based on the results of this study it is inferred, that several processes contribute to photoinhibition within the PS II reaction center and that a mechanism which comprises double reduction and protonation of Q_A leading to Q_AH₂ formation is only of marginal – if any – relevance for photoinhibition of PS II under both, aerobic and anaerobic, conditions.     

Regulation of D1-protein degradation during photoinhibition of photosystem II in vivo: Phosphorylation of the D1 protein in various plant groups

Photoinhibition of PSII and turnover of the D1 reaction-centre protein in vivo were studied in pumpkin leaves (Cucurbita pepo L.) acclimated to different growth irradiances and in low-light-grown moss, (Ceratodon purpureus) (Hedw.) Brid. The low-light-acclimated pumpkins were most susceptible to photoinhibition. The production rate of photoinhibited PSII centres (k_PI), determined in the presence of a chloroplast-encoded protein-synthesis inhibitor, showed no marked difference between the high- and low-light-grown pumpkin leaves. On the other hand, the rate constant for the repair cycle (k_REC) of PSII was nearly three times higher in the high-light-grown pumpkin when compared to low-light-grown pumpkin. The slower degradation rate of the damaged D1 protein in the low-light-acclimated leaves, determined by pulsechase experiments with [³⁵S]methionine suggested that the degradation of the Dl protein retards the repair cycle of PSII under photoinhibitory light. Slow degradation of the D1 protein in low-light-grown pumpkin was accompanied by accumulation of a phosphorylated form of the D1 protein, which we postulate as being involved in the regulation of D1-protein degradation and therefore the whole PSII repair cycle. In spite of low growth irradiance the repair cycle of PSII in the moss Ceratodon was rapid under high irradiance. When compared to the high- or low-light-acclimated pumpkin leaves, Ceratodon had the highest rate of D1-protein degradation at 1000 mol photons m^–2 s^–1. In contrast to the higher plants, the D1 protein of Ceratodon was not phosphorylated either under high irradiance in vivo or under in-vitro conditions, which readily phosphorylate the D1 protein of higher plants. This is consistent with the rapid degradation of the D1 protein in Ceratodon. Screening experiments indicated that D1 protein can be phosphorylated in the thylakoid membranes of angiosperms and conifers but not in lower plants. The postulated regulation mechanism of D1-protein degradation involving phosphorylation and the role of thylakoid organization in the function of PSII repair cycle are discussed.Abbreviations Chl Chlorophyll - D1^* phosphorylated form of D1 protein - F_max and F_v maximal and variable fluorescence respectively - k_PJ and k_REC rate constants of photoinhibition and concurrent recovery respectively - LHCII lightharvesting chlorophyll a/bprotein of PSII - PFD photon flux density Dr. R. Barbato (Dipartimento di Biologia, Universita di Padova, Padova, Italy), Prof. P. Böger (Lehrstuhl fur Physiologie und Biochemie der Pflanzen, Universität Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany), Prof. A. Melis (Department of Plant Biology, University of California, Berkeley, USA), Prof. I. Ohad (Department of Biological Chemistry, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel) and Mr. A. Soitamo (Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland) are gratefully acknowledged for the D1-protein-specific antibodies. The authors thank Ms. Virpi Paakkarinen for excellent technical assistance. This work was supported by the Academy of Finland and the Foundation of the University of Turku.     

Application of low temperatures during photoinhibition allows characterization of individual steps in photodamage and the repair of photosystem II

Recent investigations of photoinhibition have revealed that photodamage to photosystem II (PSII) involves two temporally separated steps: the first is the inactivation of the oxygen-evolving complex by light that has been absorbed by the manganese cluster and the second is the impairment of the photochemical reaction center by light that has been absorbed by chlorophyll. Our studies of photoinhibition in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 at various temperatures demonstrated that the first step in photodamage is not completed at low temperatures, such as 10°C. Further investigations suggested that an intermediate state, which is stabilized at low temperatures, might exist at the first stage of photodamage. The repair of PSII involves many steps, including degradation and removal of the D1 protein, synthesis de novo of the precursor to the D1 protein, assembly of the PSII complex, and processing of the precursor to the D1 protein. Detailed analysis of photodamage and repair at various temperatures has demonstrated that, among these steps, only the synthesis of the precursor to D1 appears to proceed at low temperatures. Investigations of photoinhibition at low temperatures have also indicated that prolonged exposure of cyanobacterial cells or plant leaves to strong light diminishes their ability to repair PSII. Such non-repairable photoinhibition is caused by inhibition of the processing of the precursor to the D1 protein after prolonged illumination with strong light at low temperatures.     

The interaction of visible and UV-B light during photodamage and repair of Photosystem II

In order to understand the mechanism of photodamage induced by solar radiation under natural conditions, we studied the interaction of visible and ultraviolet-B light in the inactivation and repair of the Photosystem II complex by using oxygen evolution and flash-induced chlorophyll fluorescence measurements. In isolated spinach thylakoids and Synechocystis 6803 cells, in which de novo protein synthesis is blocked by lincomycin, photodamage of Photosystem II by visible and UV-B light is characterized by linear semilogarithmic inactivation curves for both separate and combined illumination protocols. The extent of PS II inactivation obtained after combined illumination can be well simulated by assuming independent damaging events induced by visible and UV-B photons. In intact Synechocystis cells capable of protein repair, simultaneous illumination by visible and UV-B light impairs Photosystem II activity to a smaller extent than expected from the independent damaging events. This protective effect is pronounced at low visible light (130 μE m⁻² s⁻¹), but becomes negligible at high intensities (1300 μE m⁻² s⁻¹). Exposure of intact Synechocystis 6803 cells to direct sunlight leads to a rapid inactivation of PS II, accompanied by the accumulation of donor side inhibited centers. This phenomenon, which shows the impairment of the manganese cluster of water oxidation was not observed when the ultraviolet components of sunlight were filtered out. We conclude that visible and UV-B photons inactivate PS II via non-interacting mechanisms, which affect different target sites. In intact cells, the two spectral regions do interact, and results in synergistically enhanced protein repair capacity when UV-B radiation is accompanied by low intensity visible light, which provides protection against photodamage. However, this ameliorating effect becomes insignificant at high light intensities characteristic of direct sunlight. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Identification of functional candidate genes for drought tolerance in rice

Drought tolerance (DT) in rice is known to be controlled by many quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and involved differential expression of large numbers of genes, but linking QTLs with their underlying genes remains the most challenging issue in plant molecular biology. To shed some light on this issue, differential gene expression in response to PEG simulated drought in 3 unique genetic materials (a lowland rice, IR64 and its derived line, PD86 which has 11 introgressed DT QTLs, and a upland rice IRAT109) was investigated using a PCR-based subtractive hybridization strategy. More than 300 unique subtracted cDNA sequences, covering genes of diverse cellular activities and functions, were identified and confirmed by semi-quantitative and quantitative RT-PCR. Detailed bioinformatics analyses of the data revealed two interesting results. First, the levels and mechanisms of DT of the three rice lines were associated with the number and types of differentially expressed genes, suggesting different DT mechanisms in rice are controlled by different sets of genes and different metabolic pathways, and most differentially expressed genes under drought were able to contribute to DT. Second, there appeared a high correspondence in genomic location between DT QTLs and clusters of differentially expressed genes in rice, suggesting some DT QTLs may represent clusters of co-regulated and functionally related genes. Thus, differential gene expression analyses using genetically characterized materials can provide additional insights into the molecular basis of QTLs and convergent evidence to shortlist the candidate genes for target QTLs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Bin-Ying Fu and Jian-Hua Xiong are contributed to this work equally.     

Binding site of novel 2-benzylamino-4-methyl-6-trifluoromethyl-1,3,5- triazine herbicides in the D1 protein of Photosystem II

A series of replacement experiments of [¹⁴C]-triazines, [¹⁴C]-atrazine and [7-¹⁴C]-2-benzylamino-4-methyl-6-trifluoromethyl-1,3,5-triazine, bound to thylakoids isolated from wild-type and atrazine-resistant Chenopodium album (lambsquarters) were conducted. Replacement experiments of [¹⁴C]-triazines bound to wild-type Chenopodium thylakoids with non-labeled atrazine and 2-benzylamino-4-methyl-6-trifluoromethyl-1,3,5-triazine were carried out, to elucidate whether benzylamino-1,3,5-triazines use the same binding niche as atrazine. [¹⁴C]-Atrazine and [7-¹⁴C]-2-benzylamino-4-methyl-6-trifluoromethyl-1,3,5-triazine bound to wild-type thylakoids were replaced by non-labeled 2-benzylamino-4-methyl-6-trifluoromethyl-1,3,5-triazine and non-labeled atrazine, respectively. The above two replacements showed mutual competition. To clarify further whether benzylamino-1,3,5-triazines bind at the D1-protein to amino acid residue(s) different from atrazine or not, experiments to replace [7-¹⁴C]-2-benzylamino-4-methyl-6-trifluoromethyl-1,3,5-triazines bound to atrazine-resistant Chenopodium thylakoids by non-labeled atrazine, 2-(4-bromobenzylamino)-4-methyl-6-trifluoromethyl-1,3,5-triazine, DCMU and DNOC were carried out. Although the bound [7-¹⁴C]-2-benzylamino-4-methyl-6-trifluoromethyl-1,3,5-triazine was difficult to be replaced even with high concentrations of atrazine, [¹⁴C]-labeled 1,3,5-triazine was competitively replaced by non-labeled 2-(4-bromobenzylamino)-4-methyl-6-trifluoromethyl-1,3,5-triazine, DCMU or DNOC. Thus, 2-benzylamino-4-methyl-6-trifluoromethyl-1,3,5-triazine herbicides are considered to bind to the same niche at the D1 protein as atrazine, but use amino acid residue(s) different from those involved with atrazine binding. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Inhibition of photosystem II photochemistry by Cr is caused by the alteration of both D1 protein and oxygen evolving complex

The effect of chromium (Cr) on photosystem II (PSII) electron transport and the change of proteins content within PSII complex were investigated. When Lemna gibba was exposed to Cr during 96 h, growth inhibition was found to be associated with an alteration of the PSII electron transport at both PSII oxidizing and reducing sides. Investigation of fluorescence yields at transients K, J, I, and P suggested for Cr inhibitory effect to be located at the oxygen-evolving complex and Q_A reduction. Those Cr-inhibitory effects were related to the change of the turnover of PSII D1 protein and the alteration of 24 and 33 kDa proteins of the oxygen-evolving complex. The inhibition of the PSII electron transport and the formation of reactive oxygen species induced by Cr were highly correlated with the decrease in the content of D1 protein and the amount of 24 and 33 kDa proteins. Therefore, functional alteration of PSII activity by Cr was closely related with the structural change within PSII complex.     

Grana stacking and protection of Photosystem II in thylakoid membranes of higher plant leaves under sustained high irradiance: An hypothesis

We propose yet another function for the unique appressed thylakoids of grana stacks of higher plants, namely that during prolonged high light, the non-functional, photoinhibited PS II centres accumulate as D1 protein degradation is prevented and may act as dissipative conduits to protect other functional PS II centres. The need for this photoprotective mechanism to prevent high D1 protein turnover under excess photons in higher plants, especially those grown in shade, is due to conflicting demands between efficient use of low irradiance and protection from periodic exposure to excessive irradiance.