城市生态系统:人与自然复合

随着城市化快速发展,城市生态学进入了空前繁荣时期,一些新理念和新范式引起了广泛关注。从生态系统角度,分析了城市生态系统组分、结构、过程、功能和服务的特点,提出了城市生态系统研究的黑箱范式和结构-过程-功能-服务级联范式。重点分析了人与自然在城市生态系统的组分、结构、过程、功能和服务等方面上的不同角色,探讨了人与自然在城市生态系统组分上镶嵌、结构上融合、过程上耦合、功能上互补和服务上协同的相互作用机制,提出了城市生态系统研究的人与自然共同进化范式,即人类和自然相互作用和适应,推动了城市发展。这将为深入认识和研究城市生态系统提供重要理论支撑。     

The ethics of biofuels

The rapid development and adoption of biofuels has been driven by a wide range of targets and other policy instruments, but first‐generation biofuels have been widely criticized. In light of the development of new biofuel technologies that aim to avoid the problems of the past, the Nuffield Council on Bioethics conducted an 18‐month inquiry on the ethical, social and policy issues raised by both current and future biofuels. The Council concludes that many biofuels policies fail to take consideration of important ethical principles, such as protecting human rights, environmental sustainability, climate change mitigation, just reward, and equitable distribution of costs and benefits. It proposes an overarching ethical standard for biofuels, enforced by a certification scheme for all biofuels produced in and imported into Europe and ideally worldwide.     

From applied ethics to empirical ethics to contextual ethics

Bioethics became applied ethics when it was assimilated to moral philosophy. Because deduction is the rationality of moral philosophy, subsuming facts under moral principles to deduce conclusions about what ought to be done became the prescribed reasoning of bioethics, and bioethics became a theory comprised of moral principles. Bioethicists now realize that applied ethics is too abstract and spare to apprehend the specificity, particularity, complexity and contingency of real moral issues. Empirical ethics and contextual ethics are needed to incorporate these features into morality, not just bioethics. The relevant facts and features of problems have to be identified, investigated and framed coherently, and potential resolutions have to be constructed and assessed. Moreover, these tasks are pursued and melded within manifold contexts, for example, families, work and health care systems, as well as societal, economic, legal and political backgrounds and encompassing worldviews. This naturalist orientation and both empirical ethics and contextual ethics require judgment, but how can judgment be rational? Rationality, fortunately, is more expansive than deductive reasoning. Judgment is rational when it emanates from a rational process of deliberation, and a process of deliberation is rational when it uses the resources of non‐formal reason: observation, creative construction, formal and informal reasoning methods and systematic critical assessment. Empirical ethics and contextual ethics recognize that finite, fallible human beings live in complex, dynamic, contingent worlds, and they foster creative, critical deliberation and employ non‐formal reason to make rational moral judgments.     

Linkage of genetics and ethics: more crossing over is needed

Since the development of recombinant DNA technology in the mid 1970s, there has been increasing interest in the ethical, legal, and social implications of genetics and related fields. The web sites of five different organizations (government, academic, and independent not-for-profit) that deal explicitly with genetics and ethics are reviewed here. Some of the sites cover genetics and other issues in bioethics while others cover human genetics exclusively. The target audiences for the sites include medical and scientific professionals, students, and the general public. Among the issues examined are genetic testing, genetic discrimination in employment and health insurance, genetically modified foods, stem cells and DNA patenting. Resources for those interested in legal issues are particularly well-represented on these sites.     

Bodyworlds and the ethics of using human remains: a preliminary discussion

Accepting the claim that the living have some moral duties with regard to dead bodies, this paper explores those duties and how they bear on the popular travelling exhibition Bodyworlds. I argue that the concept of informed consent presupposes substantial duties to the dead, namely duties that reckon with the meaning of the act in question. An attitude of respect and not regarding human remains as mere raw material are non-alienable substantial duties. I found the ethos of Bodyworlds premature but full of promises such as public attitudes to organ donations. At the practical level I conclude that Bodyworlds should use only willed donations or unclaimed bodies for which dignified funerals are not available. In the case of live donations, Bodyworlds has a duty to participate in the medical care of needy donors. However, secrecy with regard to the source of cadavers seems to be the most troublesome aspect of Bodyworlds.     

Evolutionary ethics,Darwinian ethics and ethical naturalism

The relevance of evolutionary theory to ethics goes back to Darwin but until recently discussion employed evolutionary theory to justify ethical, social and political positions. Recently, evolutionary theory has been used to explain the existence of moral systems and moral propensities and, thereby, to provide a naturalistic basis for ethics. I argue that this approach has advanced our understanding of the basis of moral systems and moral propensities but does not as yet adequately incorporate the role of cognition in its account. Cognition has the effect of decoupling to some extent — though, of course, far from fully — human moral systems from their evolutionary origins. In an adequate account, evolutionary theory will play a crucial role but so also will our evolved cognitive abilities.     

No ethical divide between China and the West in human embryo research

This is a discussion of the reaction to the recent research article publication in the journal Protein & Cell by a group of scientists at Sun Yat‐sen University using the CRISPR/Cas9 technique on editing non‐viable human zygotes. Many commentators condemned the Chinese scientists for overstepping ethical boundaries long accepted in Western countries and accused China of having lax regulations on genomic research in general. We argue that not only did this research follow strict ethical standards and fully comply with current regulations, but China also has a well‐developed regulatory framework governing such research comparable to many developed countries. We see the reactions among Western commentators as a misunderstanding of the current situation and an expression of a lack of willingness to acknowledge China as an equal partner in the international debate about proper limits to the development of new biotechnologies.     

The ethics of fish welfare

The topic of fish welfare in the context of commercial fisheries is a difficult one. From traditionally anthropocentric or human‐centred perspectives, fishes are simply objects for humans to use as they see fit. When it is argued that anthropocentrism is arbitrary, it may appear that a strong animal rights position is the only recourse, with the result that humans ought not to use animals in the first place, if it is at all possible. It can be argued that both positions fail to view human beings as part of the natural world. If human beings are viewed as part of the world from which they live, then it has to be asked what it means to be respectful of the animals which humans use and from which they live. From this perspective, concern for the welfare of the fishes humans eat is simply what should be expected from humans as good citizens in the community of living creatures.     

A practical framework for ethics assessment in wildlife management decision-making

Wildlife professionals lack a framework and process for incorporating ethical considerations in a systematic and transparent way, along with ecological and social science, to support wildlife management decision-making. We provide such a framework and process based on 3 of the major theoretical branches ethicists have developed in Western culture: consequentialist moral theory, which focuses on consequences and outcomes; principle- and rule-based approaches that deal with what is considered right or wrong; and virtue ethical theory, which considers factors such as character, virtue, and aesthetics. The framework can be used to anticipate the ethical consequences of alternative courses of action or taking no action. If wildlife professionals use this framework as an assessment tool to provide input into decision-making, resulting decisions will be more transparent, better understood by stakeholders, and more consistent with public trust responsibilities.     

Broadening the narratives of ecosystem services: Assessing the perceived services from nature and services to nature

Ecosystem services are often conceptualised as a unidirectional flow of services from nature (S_fN) to societies, neglecting services provided by societies to nature (S_tN). Using respondents from four Ga/Dangme communities in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana, this study sought to develop a scale for measuring the dimensions of perceived S_tN and S_fN, assess the interactional effects between them and determine the changes they have undergone over time. Results showed that from 1987 to 2018, the services provided by the Ga/Dangme to nature were predominantly restoring services (through nature-rejuvenating activities like planting and pruning) and protecting services (via safeguarding measures such as taboos and prohibitions) while they received provisioning (food, water, fuel) and cultural services (which satisfy non-material needs including identity and spirituality) from nature. The study found a symbiotic relationship between S_tN and S_fN as provisioning services had a positive interactional effect on cultural and restoring services and a negative effect on protecting services. Cultural services, as well, positively influenced protecting and restoring services. The main determinants of S_tN and S_fN were the level of vegetation cover, the land cover type and the belief that nature is an abode for numinous beings. The effects of the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents on S_tN and S_fN and were marginal. We recommend that to ensure environmental sustainability, environmentalists should concentrate on cultural services that improve restoring and protecting services. Thus, traditional beliefs need to be contextualised and organised for transfer to younger generations through cultural channels.     

Trends in the state of nature and their implications for human well-being

Two major international initiatives - the Convention on Biological Diversity's target to reduce the rate of biodiversity loss by 2010, and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment - raise the profile of ecological data on the changing state of nature and its implications for human well-being. This paper is intended to provide a broad overview of current knowledge of these issues. Information on changes in the status of species, size of populations, and extent and condition of habitats is patchy, with little data available for many of the taxa, regions and habitats of greatest importance to the delivery of ecosystem services. However, what we do know strongly suggests that, while exceptions exist, the changes currently underway are for the most part negative, anthropogenic in origin, ominously large and accelerating. The impacts of these changes on human society are idiosyncratic and patchily understood, but for the most part also appear to be negative and substantial. Forecasting future changes is limited by our poor understanding of the cascading impacts of change within communities, of threshold effects, of interactions between the drivers of change, and of linkages between the state of nature and human well-being. In assessing future science needs, we not only see a strong role for ecological data and theory, but also believe that much closer collaboration with social and earth system scientists is essential if ecology is to have a strong bearing on policy makers.     

Barriers and challenges in clinical ethics consultations: the experiences of nine clinical ethics committees

Clinical ethics committees have recently been established in nearly all Norwegian hospital trusts. One important task for these committees is clinical ethics consultations. This qualitative study explores significant barriers confronting the ethics committees in providing such consultation services. The interviews with the committees indicate that there is a substantial need for clinical ethics support services and, in general, the committee members expressed a great deal of enthusiasm for the committee work. They also reported, however, that tendencies to evade moral disagreement, conflict, and 'outsiders' are common in the hospitals. Sometimes even the committees comply with some of these tendencies. The committees agree that there is a need to improve their routines and procedures, clarify the committees' profile and field of responsibility, to make the committees well-known, to secure adequate operating conditions, and to develop organizational integration and support. Various strategies to meet these challenges on a local, regional or national level are also explored in this paper.     

Changing attitudes to nature conservation: The National Trust

The National Trust was founded in 1895 to preserve land and its associated flora, fauna and buildings. The Trust's land holding has since increased to over 220000 ha, of which almost one-third is of high nature conservation value. The protection provided by Trust ownership is particularly important for certain species. In recent years land management for nature conservation has been transferred from volunteers to professional staff and links with other conservation bodies have been developed. A special programme began in 1979 to survey the wildlife of Trust properties. Research is encouraged where it will benefit management. In some areas where traditional management has lapsed the Trust has invested considerable resources into restoring former regimes.     

基于人类足迹的长江经济带自然保护区保护成效评价

自然保护区保护成效评价是区域可持续发展评估的重要内容。长江经济带具有丰富的生物多样性,科学评价其保护区保护成效对完善其管护措施和建设生态文明具有重要意义。基于人类足迹,从保护区的保护级别、地理经济分区与功能分区三个方面,分析长江经济带2000—2018年保护区内的人类扰动变化,并引入倾向得分匹配法来测度保护区对人类扰动的控制程度。结果表明：(1)长江经济带有35.12%的保护区保护成效良好,50.30%的保护区保护成效尚可,仅有14.58%的保护区成效较差。(2)长江经济带及其保护区的人类足迹整体上均呈增长趋势,但保护区内部增长幅度不足整个地区的一半,这表明保护区虽然没有改变内部人类足迹整体增加的趋势,但有效减缓了其增速。(3)保护区和功能分区的保护等级越高,保护成效越好。(4)长江经济带上游与中游地区保护区的保护成效好于下游地区,特别是“巴山-巫山-武陵山-雪峰山”和云南西部地区的保护区保护成效良好。研究结果可为长江经济带保护区管护措施的完善和生态文明建设提供参考。     

Where the wild things are: environmental preservation and human nature

Environmental philosophers spend considerable time drawing the divide between humans and the rest of nature. Some argue that humans and our actions are unnatural. Others allow that humans are natural, but maintain that humans are nevertheless distinct. The motivation for distinguishing humans from the rest of nature is the desire to determine what aspects of the environment should be preserved. The standard view is that we should preserve those aspects of the environment outside of humans and our influence. This paper examines the standard view by asking two questions. First, are the suggested grounds for distinguishing humans from the rest of the environment viable? Second, is such a distinction even needed for determining what to preserve? The paper concludes that debates over whether humans are natural and whether humans are unique are unhelpful when deciding what to preserve.     

老铁山自然保护区景观格局与生境质量时空变化

由于人口数量的增长和日益频繁的人类活动促进了城市扩张,自然生态系统面积逐渐缩小,一些自然保护区内部生态环境和物种栖息地随之受到影响。因此以辽宁蛇岛老铁山国家级自然保护区中的老铁山自然保护区为研究区,以1997年、2007年和2017年该地区的遥感影像为数据源,解译出15种景观类型,分析景观格局变化趋势。再选取3个景观指数作为衡量人类干扰强度的指标,生成人类干扰强度空间分布图。InVEST模型由美国自然资本项目组开发,能够定量分析生态系统服务功能,因此采用InVEST模型计算生境质量,并探讨该地区20年来人类干扰强度与生境质量的时空变化,并分析二者的相关性。结果表明:(1)1997—2017年,老铁山自然保护区建筑用地、园地面积增加最多,林地、草地略有减少;耕地向园地的转移面积最大。(2)1997—2017年,研究区内试验区和缓冲区人类干扰强度逐年增强,而核心区部分呈现先减弱再增强的趋势,保护区整体呈现出干扰逐渐增强的趋势。(3)1997—2017年该地区的生境质量整体呈现逐渐下降的趋势,生境质量时空变化的热点集中在研究区核心区的周边地带。(4)生境质量与代表人类干扰强度的景观指数呈现出...     

Speaking and listening to nature: ethics within ecology

One context for the papers arising from INTECOL VII in this special issue is the debate over the social construction of science. Some fear that advocates for the social or cultural construction of ecology will undermine attempts to defend nature. But resources are made available in a mediating position of social construal, particularly alerting ecologists to the social and ethical dimensions of the conducting of their work. When speaking, ecologists will use living and dead metaphors and these carry connotations which in turn raise ethical questions. Different political interest groups may use a word like biodiversity for different ethical purposes. The position of any one speaker is limited, and so greater knowledge is achieved if scientists listen to the situated knowledges of other, diverse people. Even Nature herself, or creatures, may have aspects of personhood. The good ecologist will listen with empathy as a naturalist to what is being said, giving Nature the respect she deserves. These are some of the ethical implications in the very doing of ecology.