基于H原子和O原子代谢的葡萄糖有氧氧化解析

通过解析葡萄糖有氧氧化偶联电子传递链合成ATP过程中的物质代谢与能量代谢,特别是基于H原子和O原子的来源与去路的全面追踪,明晰了葡萄糖有氧氧化途径不仅仅只是葡萄糖分子彻底分解代谢为CO2和H2O并合成ATP,还有葡萄糖和O2以外的物质(如Pi、Pi+GDP和H2O等)提供H原子和O原子参与合成ATP和脱羧生成CO2。     

关于"三羧酸循环"的教学探讨

三羧酸循环(tricarboxylic acid cycle,TCAcycle,也称柠檬酸循环)是在高等植物线粒体中发生的重要的碳代谢途径.它是呼吸作用中葡萄糖有氧分解的主要方式,将糖酵解产物丙酮酸逐步氧化分解为C O 2和H 2O,并生成N A D H、FADH2、ATP.     

氧化磷酸化的呼吸链途径模式概论

线粒体内氧化供能过程中的重要代谢物主要有丙酮酸、三羧酸循环中间体、氨基酸分解产物、酮体、脂肪酸β-氧化中间体、甘油代谢物、嘧啶碱基分解产物等。线粒体内重要代谢物脱下的电子对或者H原子可以通过复合体Ⅰ、复合体Ⅱ、或者通过辅酶Q等不同方式进入呼吸链进行电子传递并生成不同数量的ATP。因此,依据代谢物成对电子或H原子进入呼吸链的方式可以划分不同的氧化呼吸链途径模式:NADH氧化呼吸链途径、琥珀酸氧化呼吸链途径,以及FADH2氧化呼吸链途径。     

讲授糖酵解底物的一点体会

糖酵解是呼吸作用的一个重要途径,其定义为"淀粉、葡萄糖或其他六碳糖在厌氧状态下分解成丙酮酸的过程"[1,2].糖酵解产物丙酮酸在有氧条件下可彻底氧化生成CO2和H2O,而在厌氧条件下可生成乳酸和乙醇,因此糖酵解是有氧呼吸和厌氧呼吸的共同途径.糖酵解途径是讲授植物呼吸作用过程中的一个教学重点.从糖酵解的定义可知,糖酵解的底物为淀粉、葡萄糖或其他六碳糖,在一些参考书中主要以葡萄糖为底物进行讲解,而对淀粉和其他六碳糖涉及较少[1,3].为使糖酵解途径的教学内容更完善,我们对淀粉和其他六碳糖等底物如何进入糖酵解进行了探讨.     

线粒体呼吸链与活性氧

已知有氧真核生物细胞吸收的氧分子绝大部分都是在线粒体呼吸链末端细胞色素氧化酶上通过四步单电子还原生成水。但同时也有1％-2％的氧可在呼吸链中途接受单电子或双电子被部分还原生成超氧（O2·^-和过氧化氢（H2O2）作为呼吸作用的正常代谢产物。此种来源于线粒体呼吸链的O2·^-和H2O2不但在多种病理的氧化损伤中起关键作用,同样它们也是正常生理条件下对多种细胞过程具有基本调控意义的氧还信号。基于Chance实验室约自20世纪70到90年代的早期研究贡献以及20世纪90年代后其他各实验室的研究新进展,我们聚焦于下述四个相关问题的评述和讨论：（1）由于线粒体内膜面积及其含有的呼吸链复合体酶活力远远高出细胞中所有膜系数量和相关酶活力之总和,因而线粒体呼吸链产生的O2·^-和H2O2构成生物体内最大数量ROS的恒定来源;（2）线粒体呼吸链复合体III的Q循环中Qo位点中半醌自由基（UQH·）已明确是O2·^-的单电子来源;还原细胞色素C-P66^SHC是生成H2O2的双电子供体。虽然复合体I也是产生线粒体基质内O2·^-的主要来源,但由于其确切生成位点尚未明确,在invivo条件下能否产生大量O2·^-也尚有争议;（3）线粒体呼吸链产生O2·^-后的分配和跨膜转移涉及其生理病理作用机制和作用靶点等复杂而重要的问题,直到目前尚未意见一致。“质子和O2·^-循环双回路解偶联模型”整合了目前提出的几种假说的联系点,指出H^＋和O2·^-相互作用生成HO2·及其跨膜很可能是这一复杂问题的中心环节,并与O2·^-对“脂肪酸shuttling model”或O2·^-对“UCPS激活”模型形成了内在的联系;（4）线粒体呼吸形成的△P（△ψ和△pH）能直接控制呼吸链的ROS生成,并以非线性（非欧姆）相关方式通过影响Q循环中的Qo半醌的氧还态和寿命来调节O2·^-生成的急速?     

PKM2在肿瘤形成中的作用及其活性调节

肿瘤细胞利用有氧糖酵解将葡萄糖转变为细胞代谢及增殖所需的物质,如核苷酸、氨基酸和脂质等,并产生ATP。丙酮酸激酶是糖酵解途径中的限速酶,催化磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸生成丙酮酸。其四种同工酶之一PKM2(pyruvate kinase M2),由四个亚基组成,有单体、二聚体及四聚体等多种存在形式。其中,PKM2四聚体活性最强,能促进葡萄糖通过氧化磷酸化彻底氧化分解生成ATP,而其二聚体则促进Warburg效应,即葡萄糖的有氧酵解。两者之间的平衡在肿瘤形成中起到了很重要的作用,同时也受到一系列因子的调控。该文就PKM2在肿瘤代谢中的作用及其活性调节作一介绍。     

食糖过量为何使人发胖?

答 :人体发胖的外在表现是皮下脂肪增多。食糖过量使人发胖的原因是进食过量的糖类食物在体内转变成脂肪的缘故。正常情况下 ,体内血糖浓度保持恒定。每天人体摄入的适量的糖类食物经消化系统降解成葡萄糖入血后 ,正好弥补人体正常代谢活动所消耗的血糖量 ,一但摄入过多 ,那么这些过多的糖类就通过不同的分解途径去转化为脂肪 ,贮存于皮下组织。其转化途径概括如下 :　　即进食过量的糖类食物可经过酵解途径生成磷酸二羟丙酮 ;经有氧氧化途径生成 ATP、NADH H 、CO2 、H2 O、乙酰 Co A;经磷酸戊糖途径产生 NADPH H 。经酵解途径产…     

线粒体呼吸链膜蛋白复合体的结构

线粒体作为真核细胞的重要“能量工厂”,是细胞进行呼吸作用的场所,呼吸作用包括柠檬酸循环和氧化磷酸化两个过程,其中氧化磷酸化过程的电子传递链（又称线粒体呼吸链）位于线粒体内膜上,由四个相对分子质量很大的跨膜蛋白复合体（Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ、和Ⅳ）、介于Ⅰ／Ⅱ与Ⅲ之间的泛醌以及介于Ⅲ与Ⅳ之间的细胞色素c共同组成。线粒体呼吸链的功能是进行生物氧化,并与称之为复合物V的ATP合成酶（磷酸化过程）相偶联,共同完成氧化磷酸化过程,并生产能量分子ATP。线粒体呼吸链的结构生物学研究对于彻底了解电子传递和能量转化的机理是至关重要的,本文分别论述线粒体呼吸链复合体Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ和Ⅳ的结构,并跟踪线粒体呼吸链超复合体的结构研究进展。     

一分子葡萄糖完全氧化产生多少个ATP

细胞呼吸过程中,1分子葡萄糖完全氧化产生多少个分子ATP?这是高中生物学教学中常常需要讨论的问题.其实这个问题尚未完全解决.长期以来,教科书中的答案是36或38.但是20世纪90年代中期以后,许多生物化学教科书(例如1,2)中答案已改为最可能是30或32.原因在于P/O比的测定值.P/O比是被磷酸化的ADP分子数和消耗的O原子数之比.以前认为NADH氧化的P/O比是3,FADH2被氧化的P/O比是2.90年代以后的测定值分别是2.5和1.5.不过真实的数据还因具体的代谢条件而异,可能比这两个数据为低.教学中如果一定要说出具体数字,不要咬定38或36,可以说许多个或30多个.     

肿瘤能量代谢：糖酵解还是氧化磷酸化？

正常细胞代谢活动所需要的能量主要由线粒体氧化磷酸化产生的ATP提供。与正常细胞不同,肿瘤细胞糖酵解增强,氧化磷酸化功能降低。长期以来,肿瘤细胞的有氧糖酵解被认为是由于线粒体出现不可逆的损伤。最近有不少研究结果对这一观点提出质疑,认为多数肿瘤的线粒体氧化磷酸化功能是完好的,肿瘤有氧糖酵解的改变被认为是其他多种因素（例如癌基因、肿瘤抑制基因、低氧微环境、mtDNA突变等）综合作用的结果。     

Hexose metabolism in pancreatic islets. Regulation of aerobic glycolysis and pyruvate decarboxylation.

1. D-Glucose (0.5-16.7 mM) preferentially stimulates aerobic glycolysis and D-[3,4-14C]glucose oxidation, relative to D-[5-3H]glucose utilization in rat pancreatic islets, the concentration dependency of such a preferential effect displaying a sigmoidal pattern. 2. Inorganic and organic calcium antagonists, as well as Ca2+ deprivation, only cause a minor decrease in the ratio between D-[3,4-14C]glucose oxidation and D-[5-3H]glucose utilization in islets exposed to a high concentration of the hexose (16.7 mM). 3. Non-glucidic nutrient secretagogues such as 2-aminobicyclo[2,2,1]heptane-2-carboxylate (BCH), 2-ketoisocaproate and 3-phenylpyruvate fail to stimulate aerobic glycolysis and D-[3,4-14C]glucose oxidation in islets exposed to 6.0 mM D-glucose. Nevertheless, BCH augments [1-14C]pyruvate and [2-14C]pyruvate oxidation. 4. The glucose-induced increment in the paired ratio between D-[3,4-14C]glucose oxidation and D-[5-3H]glucose utilization is impaired in the presence of either cycloheximide or ouabain. 5. These findings suggest that the preferential effect of D-glucose upon aerobic glycolysis and pyruvate decarboxylation is not attributable solely to a Ca(2+)-induced activation of FAD-linked glycerophosphate dehydrogenase and/or pyruvate dehydrogenase, but may also involve an ATP-modulated regulatory process.     

生物氧化中氧化还原关系的分析

通过对葡萄糖氧化过程和软脂酸氧化过程的分析,厘清生物氧化过程中的脱羧、脱氢、加水、电子传递等过程的内在逻辑联系,并以C原子周围化学键的变化为基础,分析糖类化合物和脂类化合物被氧化的内在规律,找到利用糖类和脂类化合物的分子结构,推导氧化反应产物的方法。     

Demethylation of [14C]-labelled veratric acid and oxidation of methanol and formaldehyde by the white-rot fungus Phlebia radiata

Veratric acids 14C-labelled in carboxyl group, 3-OCH3, 4-OCH3, or aromatic ring together with unlabelled veratric acid were supplemented in the cultures of the white-rot fungus Phlebia radiata. The effect of various carbon sources on the release of 14CO2 was studied. Veratric acid was readily decarboxylated, maximally already on day 1 from the addition of [14COOH]-veratric acid. High amounts (4%) of glucose slightly repressed the decarboxylation. In medium supplemented with cellulose the methoxyl group in position 4 was much more readily mineralized to CO2 than the group in position 3. The maximum evolution was achieved on day 5, two days from the addition. Cellulose did not repress methanol oxidation but repression of methanol oxidation by glucose was detected in media supplemented with [O14CH3]-veratric acids and 14CH3OH. However, glucose did not repress oxidation of H14CHO. The apparent uptake of 14C by fungal mycelium, especially from methoxyl groups, but also from the aromatic ring, may partially be due to the strong slime formation observed in cellobiose medium. Also in cellobiose medium apparent uptake of 14C from 14C-labelled methoxyl groups was observed.     

Activation by ATP of calcium-dependent NADPH-oxidase generating hydrogen peroxide in thyroid plasma membranes

An H2O2-generating fraction was prepared from porcine thyroid homogenate by differential and Percoll-density gradient centrifugations. The fraction consisted of mainly fragmented plasma membranes as judged by marker enzyme analysis and electron microscopy. The fraction produced H2O2 by reaction with NADPH only in the presence of Ca2+. The Ca2+ concentration for half-maximal activation (KCa) was about 0.1 microM and the Hill coefficient was 2. Sr2+ also activated the reaction whereas Mn2+, Zn2+, and Cd2+ inhibited it. The reaction was enhanced about twice by addition of ATP but not ADP, and inhibited by addition of hexokinase together with glucose to remove ATP. The Km value for NADPH was 35 microM and was less than 1/12 that for NADH. The NADPH oxidation rate was measured and the KCa and the Km were similar to those for the H2O2 production. The stoichiometry between the oxidation and the H2O2 formation was essentially 1. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and KCN did not affect H2O2 production. The fraction catalyzed NADPH-cytochrome c reduction but the activity was SOD-insensitive. These results suggest that H2O2 was not generated through superoxide anion formation. NADPH-dichloroindophenol (DCIP) reductase activity was also observed and DCIP inhibited the production of H2O2. The cytochrome c and DCIP reductase activities were not influenced by Ca2+ or ATP. A unique electron transport system regulated by Ca2+ and ATP exists in the thyroid plasma membrane that produces H2O2. The concentrations of Ca2+ and ATP in thyroid cells may regulate hormone synthesis through activation of the production of H2O2, a substrate for peroxidase.     

Cellular Energetics of Animals from High Sulfide Environments

SYNOPSIS.Mitochondrial ATP production is influenced by manyfactors, including the adenylate status of the cell, the supplyof reducing equivalents to the electron transport chain, thesupply of oxygen to cytochrome oxidase, and the demand for ATPto do cellular work. Hydrogen sulfide, which is naturally producedin marine sediments, is a poison of aerobic ATP production mainlybecause it inhibits cytochrome oxidase in the electron transportchain. However, most animals from high sulfide environmentsexhibit aerobic respiration, and may avoid sulfide poisoningwith detoxification reactions that may be useful sources ofenergy. Sulfide stimulates ADP phosphorylation in mitochondriaisolated from gills of Solemya reidi, a sulfide-oxidizing symbiont-harboringbivalve, and a P/O ratio near unity indicates that electronsfrom sulfide enter the electron transport chain at the levelof cytochrome c. Current investigations into the effects ofsulfide on oxygen consumption rate, ATP level, cytochrome reductionstate and ciliary beat frequency of symbiont-free gills of themussels Geukensia demissa and Mytilus edulis indicate that animalsfrom high sulfide environments may gain sufficient energy fromsulfide oxidation to support cellular work.     

Respiration-linked proton translocation in the obligate methylotroph Methylophilus methylotrophus.

The stoicheiometries of respiration-linked proton translocation in Methylophilus methylotrophus were determined by using both the oxygen-pulse and initial-rate methods. The latter has also been used to determine leads to charge/O quotients (measured as yield K+/O quotients) in order to ascertain whether the leads to H+/O quotients might be underestimated by H+/anion symport. The results suggest that 6H+/O are translocated during NADH oxidation, and that 2H+/O are translocated during the oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde. There was no evidence for underestimation of the leads to H+/O quotients due to H+/anion symport, except by the movement of formic acid during formate oxidation. By comparing these results with the known growth efficiencies of this organism, an leads to H+/ATP quotient of close to 2 g-ions of H+/mol of ATP can be calculated. It is proposed that the respiratory chain in Methylophilus methylotrophus is arranged such that there are three sites of energy conservation for NADH oxidation, each translocating 2H+ and each linked to the synthesis of one molecule of ATP. Only the third site of energy conservation is involved in methanol oxidation.     

Carnitine stimulation of glucose oxidation in the fatty acid perfused isolated working rat heart.

The effects of L-carnitine on myocardial glycolysis, glucose oxidation, and palmitate oxidation were determined in isolated working rat hearts. Hearts were perfused under aerobic conditions with perfusate containing either 11 mM [2-3H/U-14C]glucose in the presence or absence of 1.2 mM palmitate or 11 mM glucose and 1.2 mM [1-14C]palmitate. Myocardial carnitine levels were elevated by perfusing hearts with 10 mM L-carnitine. A 60-min perfusion period resulted in significant increases in total myocardial carnitine from 4376 +/- 211 to 9496 +/- 473 nmol/g dry weight. Glycolysis (measured as 3H2O production) was unchanged in carnitine-treated hearts perfused in the absence of fatty acids (4418 +/- 300 versus 4547 +/- 600 nmol glucose/g dry weight.min). If 1.2 mM palmitate was present in the perfusate, glycolysis decreased almost 2-fold compared with hearts perfused in the absence of fatty acids. In carnitine-treated hearts this drop in glycolysis did not occur (glycolytic rates were 2911 +/- 231 to 4629 +/- 460 nmol glucose/g dry weight.min, in control and carnitine-treated hearts, respectively. Compared with control hearts, glucose oxidation rates (measured as 14CO2 production from [U-14C]glucose) were unaltered in carnitine-treated hearts perfused in the absence of fatty acids (1819 +/- 169 versus 2026 +/- 171 nmol glucose/g dry weight.min, respectively). In the presence of 1.2 mM palmitate, glucose oxidation decreased dramatically in control hearts (11-fold). In carnitine-treated hearts, however, glucose oxidation was significantly greater than control hearts under these conditions (158 +/- 21 to 454 +/- 85 nmol glucose/g dry weight.min, in control and carnitine-treated hearts, respectively). Palmitate oxidation rates (measured as 14CO2 production from [1-14C]palmitate) decreased in the carnitine-treated hearts from 728 +/- 61 to 572 +/- 111 nmol palmitate/g dry weight.min. This probably occurred secondary to an increase in overall ATP production from glucose oxidation (from 5.4 to 14.5% of steady state myocardial ATP production). The results reported in this study provide direct evidence that carnitine can stimulate glucose oxidation in the intact fatty acid perfused heart. This probably occurs secondary to facilitating the intramitochondrial transfer of acetyl groups from acetyl-CoA to acetylcarnitine, thereby relieving inhibition of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.     

Photosynthesis in phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase-type C4 plants: activity and role of mitochondria in bundle sheath cells

Mitochondria from bundle sheath cells of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase-type C4 species Urochloa panicoides were shown to have metabolic properties consistent with a role in C4 photosynthesis predicted from earlier studies. The rate of O2 uptake in response to added malate plus ADP was at least five times the activity observed with NADH, glycine, or succinate. With malate plus ADP the O2 uptake rate averaged about 150 nmol O2 min-1 mg-1 protein, equivalent to about 0.6 mumol min-1 mg-1 of extracted chlorophyll. About half of this activity was apparently phosphorylation-linked with ADP/O2 ratios of about 4. Studies with electron transport inhibitors suggested that about 65% of this malate oxidation is cytochrome oxidase-terminated with a minor component mediated via the alternative oxidase. These mitochondria supported rapid rates of pyruvate production from malate and this activity was also stimulated by ADP but blocked by inhibitors of electron transport. Adding oxaloacetate increased pyruvate production but inhibited O2 uptake. The results were consistent with the notion that in this subgroup of C4 species mitochondrial-located NAD malic enzyme contributes substantially to total C4 acid decarboxylation. This enzyme is apparently also the primary source of NADH necessary to generate the ATP required for phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase-mediated oxaloacetate decarboxylation.     

Photosynthesis in phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase-type C4 plants: pathways of C4 acid decarboxylation in bundle sheath cells of Urochloa panicoides

The mechanism of C4 acid decarboxylation was studied in bundle sheath cell strands from Urochloa panicoides, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PCK)-type C4 plant. Added malate was decarboxylated to give pyruvate and this activity was often increased by adding ADP. Added oxaloacetate or aspartate plus 2-oxoglutarate (which produce oxaloacetate via aspartate aminotransferase) gave little metabolic decarboxylation alone but with added ATP there was a rapid production of PEP. For this activity ADP could replace ATP but only when added in combination with malate. In addition, the inclusion of aspartate plus 2-oxoglutarate with malate plus ADP often increased the rate of pyruvate production from malate by more than twofold. Experiments with respiratory chain inhibitors showed that the malate-dependent stimulation of oxaloacetate decarboxylation (PEP production) was probably due to ATP generated during the oxidation of malate in mitochondria. We could provide no evidence that photophosphorylation could serve as an alternative source of ATP for the PEP carboxykinase reaction. We concluded that both PEP carboxykinase and mitochondrial NAD-malic enzyme contribute to C4 acid decarboxylation in these cells, with the required ATP being derived from oxidation-linked phosphorylation in mitochondria.     

Generation of hydrogen peroxide by brain mitochondria: the effect of reoxygenation following postdecapitative ischemia

The hypothesis that mitochondria damaged during complete cerebral ischemia generate increased amounts of superoxide anion radical and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) upon postischemic reoxygenation has been tested. In rat brain mitochondria, succinate supported H2O2 generation, whereas NADH-linked substrates, malate plus glutamate, did so only in the presence of respiratory chain inhibitors. Succinate-supported H2O2 generation was diminished by rotenone and the uncoupler carbonyl cyanide m-chlorphenylhydrazone and enhanced by antimycin A and increased oxygen tensions. When maximally reduced, the NADH dehydrogenase and the ubiquinone-cytochrome b regions of the electron transport chain are sources of H2O2. These studies suggest that a significant portion of H2O2 generation in brain mitochondria proceeds via the transfer of reducing equivalents from ubiquinone to the NADH dehydrogenase portion of the electron transport chain. Succinate-supported H2O2 generation by mitochondria isolated from rat brain exposed to 15 min of postdecapitative ischemia was 90% lower than that of control preparations. The effect of varying oxygen tensions on H2O2 generation by postischemic mitochondrial preparations was negligible compared with the increased H2O2 generation measured in control preparations. Comparison of the effects of respiratory chain inhibitors and oxygen tension on succinate-supported H2O2 generation suggests that the ability for reversed electron transfer is impaired during ischemia. These data do not support the hypothesis that mitochondrial free radical generation increases during postischemic reoxygenation.