Digital Surveillance: A Novel Approach to Monitoring the Illegal Wildlife Trade

A dearth of information obscures the true scale of the global illegal trade in wildlife. Herein, we introduce an automated web crawling surveillance system developed to monitor reports on illegally traded wildlife. A resource for enforcement officials as well as the general public, the freely available website, http://www.healthmap.org/wildlifetrade, provides a customizable visualization of worldwide reports on interceptions of illegally traded wildlife and wildlife products. From August 1, 2010 to July 31, 2011, publicly available English language illegal wildlife trade reports from official and unofficial sources were collected and categorized by location and species involved. During this interval, 858 illegal wildlife trade reports were collected from 89 countries. Countries with the highest number of reports included India (n = 146, 15.6%), the United States (n = 143, 15.3%), South Africa (n = 75, 8.0%), China (n = 41, 4.4%), and Vietnam (n = 37, 4.0%). Species reported as traded or poached included elephants (n = 107, 12.5%), rhinoceros (n = 103, 12.0%), tigers (n = 68, 7.9%), leopards (n = 54, 6.3%), and pangolins (n = 45, 5.2%). The use of unofficial data sources, such as online news sites and social networks, to collect information on international wildlife trade augments traditional approaches drawing on official reporting and presents a novel source of intelligence with which to monitor and collect news in support of enforcement against this threat to wildlife conservation worldwide.     

Being Attractive Brings Advantages: The Case of Parrot Species in Captivity

Background

Parrots are one of the most frequently kept and bred bird orders in captivity. This increases poaching and thus the potential importance of captive populations for rescue programmes managed by zoos and related institutions. Both captive breeding and poaching are selective and may be influenced by the attractiveness of particular species to humans. In this paper, we tested the hypothesis that the size of zoo populations is not only determined by conservation needs, but also by the perceived beauty of individual parrot species assessed by human observers.

Methodology/Principal Findings

For the purpose of data collection, we defined four sets of species (40 parrots, 367 parrots, 34 amazons, 17 macaws). Then, we asked 776 human respondents to evaluate parrot pictures of the selected species according to perceived beauty and we analyzed its association with color and morphological characters. Irrespective of the species set, we found a good agreement among the respondents. The preferred species tended to be large, colorful, and long-tailed.

Conclusions/Significance

We repeatedly confirmed significant, positive association between the perceived beauty and the size of worldwide zoo population. Moreover, the range size and body size appeared to be significant predictors of zoo population size. In contrast, the effects of other explanatory variables, including the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) listing, appeared insignificant. Our results may suggest that zoos preferentially keep beautiful parrots and pay less attention to conservation needs.     

Do Parasitic Trematode Cercariae Demonstrate a Preference for Susceptible Host Species?

Many parasites are motile and exhibit behavioural preferences for certain host species. Because hosts can vary in their susceptibility to infections, parasites might benefit from preferentially detecting and infecting the most susceptible host, but this mechanistic hypothesis for host-choice has rarely been tested. We evaluated whether cercariae (larval trematode parasites) prefer the most susceptible host species by simultaneously presenting cercariae with four species of tadpole hosts. Cercariae consistently preferred hosts in the following order: Anaxyrus ( = Bufo) terrestris (southern toad), Hyla squirella (squirrel tree frog), Lithobates ( = Rana) sphenocephala (southern leopard frog), and Osteopilus septentrionalis (Cuban tree frog). These host species varied in susceptibility to cercariae in an order similar to their attractiveness with a correlation that approached significance. Host attractiveness to parasites also varied consistently and significantly among individuals within a host species. If heritable, this individual-level host variation would represent the raw material upon which selection could act, which could promote a Red Queen “arms race” between host cues and parasite detection of those cues. If, in general, motile parasites prefer to infect the most susceptible host species, this phenomenon could explain aggregated distributions of parasites among hosts and contribute to parasite transmission rates and the evolution of virulence. Parasite preferences for hosts belie the common assumption of disease models that parasites seek and infect hosts at random.     

Hotspot elephant‐poaching areas in the Eastern Selous Game Reserve,Tanzania

Elephant poaching is a significant problem in many parts of Africa, including Tanzania. This study identifies areas within the Eastern Selous Game Reserve (ESGR) that are at a higher risk of elephant poaching for the illegal ivory trade. We obtained data on the distribution of poached elephants and the seasons of poaching from 2008 to 2013 from the elephant mortality database of the Selous Game Reserve in the eastern and north‐eastern sectors. The incidences of poaching were higher during the wet season. The hot spots of elephant poaching were observed on the edges of the ESGR. This finding was attributed to the involvement of local people adjacent to the ESGR in poaching activities due to a lack of economic opportunities. This study will serve as a tool to guide and inform reserve managers involved in wildlife conservation in Tanzania. Recommended solutions to address the problem of elephant poaching are improved economic opportunities for local people, enhanced conservation education and research and improved governance and law enforcement.     

Impact of protection on nest take and nesting success of parrots in Africa, Asia and Australasia

Wild parrots represent one of the greatest commercial interests in the legal trade in wild birds. Although it is difficult to quantify, there is a considerable illegal trade in wild parrots. Thirty-six per cent of the world's parrot species are listed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature as threatened or near threatened, and 55% of these are threatened to some degree by trade. In this paper, we investigate the impact of protection on the number of nests that failed because of nestlings being taken by humans (hereafter nest take) and on nesting success in parrots. We collate data on parrot nest take from published and unpublished studies from Africa, Asia and Australasia, including countries and sites with and without national and local parrot protection measures in place. Nest take was insignificant in Australia, where all studies were from areas with both local and national protection. For less developed countries, levels of nest take were variable between studies, spanning the whole range from 0 to 100%. Protection significantly reduced nest take and correspondingly increased nesting success. Our results corroborate those for the Neotropics; thus, the advantages of protection appear to be independent of geographical location or political and economic conditions. We analysed data on legal trade in wild-caught parrots before and after implementation of the 1992 Wild Bird Conservation Act (which practically eliminated import of parrots to the USA) and found that there was no apparent shift in parrot imports to other global regions from the Neotropics. We suggest that conservation of parrots globally would benefit from similar legislation introduced in other regions, such as the EU (15), which is responsible for more than 60% of global imports of wild parrots.     

Global trends of habitat destruction and consequences for parrot conservation

Human advance on natural habitats is a major cause of biodiversity loss. This transformation process represents a profound change in wooded environments, disrupting original communities of flora and fauna. Many species are highly dependent on forests, especially parrots (Psittaciformes) with almost a third of their species threatened by extinction. Most parrot species occur in tropical and subtropical forests, and given the forest dependence of most species, this is the main reason why habitat loss has been highlighted as the main threat for the group. Such habitat loss acts in synergy with other important threats (e.g., logging and poaching), which become especially problematic in certain developing countries along tropical latitudes. In this study, we used available information on parrot distributions, species traits, IUCN assessment, habitat loss and timber extraction for different periods, and distribution of protected areas, to determine conservation hotspots for the group, and analyze potential changes in the conservation status of these species. We detected four conservation hotspots for parrots: two in the Neotropics and two in Oceania, all of them facing different degrees of threat in regard of current habitat loss and agricultural trends. Our results suggest that the future of the group is subject to policymaking in specific regions, especially in the northeastern Andes and the Atlantic Forest. In addition, we predicted that agricultural expansion will have a further negative effect on the conservation status of parrots, pushing many parrot species to the edge of extinction in the near future. Our results have conservation implications by recommending protected areas in specific parrot conservation hotspots. Our recommendations to mitigate conservation risks to this group of umbrella species would also benefit many other coexisting species as well.     

Native or not? Tracing the origin of wild-caught and captive freshwater turtles in a threatened and widely distributed species (Emys orbicularis)

Pet and food trade are among the major threats for many chelonians species worldwide. We investigate the impact of the present and past trade in European pond turtles (Emys orbicularis, E. trinacris) on their extant distribution pattern. Using a comprehensive mtDNA dataset of cytochrome b haplotypes derived from more than 1,550 individuals, we assigned wild-caught allochthonous and captive turtles from six European countries to their native regions across the entire distribution range. We found allochthonous haplotypes in all countries surveyed, providing evidence of long-distance translocations owing to past and present trade, illegal poaching or collection by tourists. In summary, we identify source regions of allochthonous turtles and past and present trade routes. Moreover, we point out future directions which would contribute to conservation and management of these threatened species.     

Attractiveness to Anastrepha ludens (Diptera: Tephritidae) of plant essential oils and a synthetic food-odour lure

Abstract:  Experiments were conducted in a citrus orchard to investigate the attractiveness of 26 plant essential oils individually and in combination with a synthetic food odour lure to the Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens Loew. Anise, rose/grape seed, and tea tree oils were more attractive than unbaited traps but none approached the attractiveness of Advanced Pheromone Technologies' AFF lure, a synthetic food-odour lure that emits several nitrogenous chemicals attractive to this fly. Traps baited with most of the oils were less attractive than unbaited traps. Rose/grape seed oil and pure-rose oil enhanced attractiveness of AFF lures to both males and females by about 68%. Grape seed oil did not enhance the attractiveness of AFF lures demonstrating that rose oil was the active component of the rose/grape seed oil. No other oil enhanced attractiveness of AFF lures and most decreased attraction to AFF lures. The possibility that highly attractive chemicals may be present in rose oil as minor components is discussed. Traps baited with the combination of clove bud oil and the AFF lure captured only 3% as many flies as traps baited only with the AFF lure indicating that clove bud oil is highly repellent to Mexican fruit flies.     

Ovulatory Shifts in Women��s Attractions to Primary Partners and Other Men: Further Evidence of the Importance of Primary Partner Sexual Attractiveness

Previous research has documented shifts in women’s attractions to their romantic partner and to men other than their partner across the ovulation cycle, contingent on the degree to which her partner displays hypothesized indicators of high-fitness genes. The current study set out to replicate and extend this finding. Forty-one couples in which the woman was naturally cycling participated. Female partners reported their feelings of in-pair attraction and extra-pair attraction on two occasions, once on a low-fertility day of the cycle and once on a high-fertility day of the cycle just prior to ovulation. Ovulation was confirmed using luteinizing hormone tests. We collected two measures of male partner sexual attractiveness. First, the women in the study rated their partner’s sexual attractiveness. Second, we photographed the partners and had the photos independently rated for attractiveness. Shifts in women’s in-pair attractions across the cycle were significantly moderated by women’s ratings of partner sexual attractiveness, such that the less sexually attractive women rated their partner, the less in-pair attraction they reported at high fertility compared with low fertility (partial r = .37, p _dir = .01). Shifts in women’s extra-pair attractions across the cycle were significantly moderated by third-party ratings of partner attractiveness, such that the less attractive the partner was, the more extra-pair attraction women reported at high relative to low fertility (partial r = −.33, p _dir = .03). In line with previous findings, we found support for the hypothesis that the degree to which a woman’s romantic partner displays indicators of high-fitness genes affects women’s attractions to their own partner and other men at high fertility.     

Anthropogenic Influences on Conservation Values of White Rhinoceros

White rhinoceros (rhinos) is a keystone conservation species and also provides revenue for protection agencies. Restoring or mimicking the outcomes of impeded ecological processes allows reconciliation of biodiversity and financial objectives. We evaluate the consequences of white rhino management removal, and in recent times, poaching, on population persistence, regional conservation outcomes and opportunities for revenue generation. In Kruger National Park, white rhinos increased from 1998 to 2008. Since then the population may vary non-directionally. In 2010, we estimated 10,621 (95% CI: 8,767–12,682) white rhinos using three different population estimation methods. The desired management effect of a varying population was detectable after 2008. Age and sex structures in sink areas (focal rhino capture areas) were different from elsewhere. This comes from relatively more sub-adults being removed by managers than what the standing age distribution defined. Poachers in turn focused on more adults in 2011. Although the effect of poaching was not detectable at the population level given the confidence intervals of estimates, managers accommodated expected poaching annually and adapted management removals. The present poaching trend predicts that 432 white rhinos may be poached in Kruger during 2012. The white rhino management model mimicking outcomes of impeded ecological processes predicts 397 rhino management removals are required. At present poachers may be doing “management removals,” but conservationists have no opportunity left to contribute to regional rhino conservation strategies or generate revenue through white rhino sales. In addition, continued trends in poaching predict detectable white rhino declines in Kruger National Park by 2016. Our results suggest that conservationists need innovative approaches that reduce financial incentives to curb the threats that poaching poses to several conservation values of natural resources such as white rhinos.     

Effects of poaching on bull mating success in a free ranging African elephant (Loxodonta africana) population in Tarangire National Park, Tanzania

Poaching and habitat encroachment for human settlement are the two major factors that caused contraction of elephant populations in Africa. While the effects of poaching on many aspects of elephant social systems have been studied, the impacts on mating patterns are not yet understood and such information is still lacking in most African countries. In this study, we used elephant specific-microsatellite DNA to generate genotypes from 86 elephant samples (84 fresh faeces and two tissue samples) from Tarangire National Park (TNP), Tanzania to assess the mating success of individual males. We also tested whether the oldest bulls are more likely to sire most of the offspring in a severely poached population. Genetic paternity analysis was compared to behavioural observations of matings collected over a 3-year period (1998–2001) to determine the success of bull mating strategy. The genotypes of 26 infants, their known mothers and 10 out of 43 potential breeding bulls in TNP were used to assign 31% of the offspring at 80% confidence level to their potential fathers with simulation assuming that 23% (10/43) of the breeding males were sampled. Mating success of individual bull based on both behavioural and genetic data showed that the oldest remaining bulls performed most of the matings and fathered the majority of infants. We speculate that the lifetime fitness of bulls that have survived poaching may be elevated because their period of dominance increases.     

Going Cheap: Determinants of Bird Price in the Taiwanese Pet Market

BackgroundInternational wildlife trade is the largest emerging source of vertebrate invasive alien species. In order to prevent invasions, it is essential to understand the mechanics of trade and, in particular, which traded species are most likely to be released or escape into the wild. A species’ economic value is a key factor, because we expect cheaper species to be less assiduously secured against escaping, and more likely to be deliberately released. Here, we investigate determinants of the price of species in the Taiwanese bird trade. Taiwan is an international hub for bird trade, and several native species are threatened by alien bird species.MethodologyWe investigated the relationship between the traded species sale price in Taiwan and the species availability for trade (the number of birds for sale, geographic range size and their origin, conservation and CITES status) and traits (body size, coloration, song attractiveness). We used phylogenetic generalized least squares models, with multi-model inference, to assess the variables that are best related to the price of birds in the Taiwanese pet trade.

Principal Findings / Conclusions

We found that species available for sale in larger numbers, native to Taiwan, not globally endangered, and small-bodied are all relatively cheaper, as too are species lacking yellow coloration and without attractive songs. Our models of price revealed high levels of phylogenetic correlation, and hence that closely related species tended to be sold for similar prices. We suggest that, on the basis of price, native species are more likely to be deliberately or accidentally released than alien species. Nevertheless, our survey of bird shops recorded 160 species alien to Taiwan (7,631 individuals), several of which are for sale cheaply and in large numbers. Alien bird species in trade therefore present an ongoing, non-trivial invasion risk on the island.     

Repeatability of Feather Mite Prevalence and Intensity in Passerine Birds

Understanding why host species differ so much in symbiont loads and how this depends on ecological host and symbiont traits is a major issue in the ecology of symbiosis. A first step in this inquiry is to know whether observed differences among host species are species-specific traits or more related with host-symbiont environmental conditions. Here we analysed the repeatability (R) of the intensity and the prevalence of feather mites to partition within- and among-host species variance components. We compiled the largest dataset so far available: 119 Paleartic passerine bird species, 75,944 individual birds, ca. 1.8 million mites, seven countries, 23 study years. Several analyses and approaches were made to estimate R and adjusted repeatability (R_adj) after controlling for potential confounding factors (breeding period, weather, habitat, spatial autocorrelation and researcher identity). The prevalence of feather mites was moderately repeatable (R = 0.26–0.53; R_adj = 0.32–0.57); smaller values were found for intensity (R = 0.19–0.30; R_adj = 0.18–0.30). These moderate repeatabilities show that prevalence and intensity of feather mites differ among species, but also that the high variation within species leads to considerable overlap among bird species. Differences in the prevalence and intensity of feather mites within bird species were small among habitats, suggesting that local factors are playing a secondary role. However, effects of local climatic conditions were partially observed for intensity.     

Plumage colour variations in the Agapornis genus: a review

The genus Agapornis consists of nine small African parrot species that are globally well known as pets, but are also found in their native habitat. Illegal trapping, poaching and habitat destruction are the main threats these birds face in the wild. In aviculture, Agapornis breeding is highly popular all across the globe. Birds are mainly selected based on their plumage colour variations but very little molecular research has been conducted on this topic. There are 30 known colour variations amongst the nine species and most of these are inherited as Mendelian traits. However, to date none of the genes or polymorphisms linked to these variations have been identified or verified. Due to unethical breeding practices, the need for the development of molecular tests such as identification verification tests or species identity tests is growing. Future research is paramount to ensure the conservation of wild populations as well as aiding breeders in improving breeding strategies.     

Beer Consumption Increases Human Attractiveness to Malaria Mosquitoes

Background

Malaria and alcohol consumption both represent major public health problems. Alcohol consumption is rising in developing countries and, as efforts to manage malaria are expanded, understanding the links between malaria and alcohol consumption becomes crucial. Our aim was to ascertain the effect of beer consumption on human attractiveness to malaria mosquitoes in semi field conditions in Burkina Faso.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We used a Y tube-olfactometer designed to take advantage of the whole body odour (breath and skin emanations) as a stimulus to gauge human attractiveness to Anopheles gambiae (the primary African malaria vector) before and after volunteers consumed either beer (n = 25 volunteers and a total of 2500 mosquitoes tested) or water (n = 18 volunteers and a total of 1800 mosquitoes). Water consumption had no effect on human attractiveness to An. gambiae mosquitoes, but beer consumption increased volunteer attractiveness. Body odours of volunteers who consumed beer increased mosquito activation (proportion of mosquitoes engaging in take-off and up-wind flight) and orientation (proportion of mosquitoes flying towards volunteers'' odours). The level of exhaled carbon dioxide and body temperature had no effect on human attractiveness to mosquitoes. Despite individual volunteer variation, beer consumption consistently increased attractiveness to mosquitoes.

Conclusions/Significance

These results suggest that beer consumption is a risk factor for malaria and needs to be integrated into public health policies for the design of control measures.     

Mobility and International Collaboration: Case of the Mexican Scientific Diaspora

We use a data set of Mexican researchers working abroad that are included in the Mexican National System of Researchers (SNI). Our diaspora sample includes 479 researchers, most of them holding postdoctoral positions in mainly seven countries: USA, Great Britain, Germany, France, Spain, Canada and Brazil. Their research output and impact is explored in order to determine their patterns of production, mobility and scientific collaboration as compared with previous studies of the SNI researchers in the periods 1991–2001 and 2003–2009. Our findings confirm that mobility has a strong impact on their international scientific collaboration. We found no substantial influence among the researchers that got their PhD degrees abroad from those trained in Mexican universities. There are significant differences among the areas of knowledge studied: biological sciences, physics and engineering have better production and impact rates than mathematics, geosciences, medicine, agrosciences, chemistry, social sciences and humanities. We found a slight gender difference in research production but Mexican female scientists are underrepresented in our diaspora sample. These findings would have policy implications for the recently established program that will open new academic positions for young Mexican scientists.     

Reduced current distribution of Psittacidae on the Mexican Pacific coast: potential impacts of habitat loss and capture for trade

Ecological niche models provide useful predictions of species distributions, but may fail to detect reductions in distribution due to factors other than habitat loss, such as hunting or trade. From 2001 to 2009, we conducted field-surveys along the Mexican Pacific coast to obtain presence–absence data for nine Psittacidae species. We applied Genetic Algorithm for Rule set Prediction (GARP) ecological niche modeling, using field-survey presence data to determine the potential current distribution of each species, and incorporated absence data to delineate extirpation areas. All parrot species showed a reduced current distribution, ranging from 9.6 to 79% reduction of estimated original distribution. The threatened and endemic species of Amazona oratrix, Amazona finschi, and Forpus cyanopygius suffered the greatest distribution reduction, higher than previously estimated by habitat-based models, suggesting that capture for trade may have caused extirpation of these species. The greatest extent of current distribution was occupied by Aratinga canicularis, Amazona albifrons and Ara militaris, which continue to occur throughout most of their original distribution. Amazona auropalliata, Aratinga strenua, and Brotogeris jugularis also occur throughout their restricted distribution in coastal Chiapas, and show a relatively small distribution reduction, but had the highest proportion of modified lands within their current distributions. Our results highlighted the regions of coastal Guerrero, northern Nayarit, and southern Sinaloa where parrot species have been extirpated even though GARP models predicted suitable habitat available. Ideally distribution models should be verified in the field to determine conservation priorities, and efforts should be directed to maintain populations of species with greatest distribution reductions.     

A Potential Metric of the Attractiveness of Bird Song to Humans

The prevalence of passerines (mostly oscines, or songbirds) in international bird trade suggests that the possession or production of a song that is attractive or desirable to people may contribute to the likelihood of a species being traded. Testing this is difficult because we lack a general and readily available metric that quantifies attractiveness of bird song to humans. We propose and validate such a metric, based on the number of sound files lodged for a species on the Xeno‐Canto website ( www.xeno-canto.org ). Our hypothesis is that species with more attractive songs are likely to be recorded more often, and so be represented more often in this online bird sound resource, all else being equal. Using a sample of North American and European passerines, we show that song repertoire size and geographic range size are consistently related to the number of recordings on Xeno‐Canto. We use these results to derive a metric (the residuals of a model of the number of recordings in Xeno‐Canto as a function of geographic range size) that may identify songs that are attractive to humans. Bird species whose songs are known to have inspired classical music, including several well known for their songs (e.g. common nightingale, European blackbird), have higher values of the metric than those that have not been referenced in classical music. The metric may help explain which bird species are present in trade, and so contribute to studies of invasion and conservation biology.     

Comparison of Mexican Wolf and Coyote Diets in Arizona and New Mexico

ABSTRACT Interactions between wolves (Canis lupus) and coyotes (C. latrans) can have significant impacts on their distribution and abundance. We compared diets of recently translocated Mexican wolves (C. l. baileyi) with diets of resident coyotes in Arizona and New Mexico, USA. We systematically collected scats during 2000 and 2001. Coyote diet was composed mostly of mammalian species, followed by vegetation and insects. Elk (Cervus elaphus) was the most common item in coyote scats. Mexican wolf diet had a higher proportion of large mammals and fewer small mammals than coyote diet; however, elk was also the most common food item in Mexican wolf scats. Our results suggest that Mexican wolf diet was more similar to coyote diet than previously reported, but coyotes had more seasonal variation. Considering results in other areas, we expect that Mexican wolves will have a negative impact on coyotes through direct mortality and possibly competition. Reintroduction of Mexican wolves may have great impacts on communities by changing relationships among other predators and their prey.     

Ecological and socio-economic factors affecting extinction risk in parrots

Parrots (Psittaciformes) are among the most threatened bird orders with 28 % (111 of 398) of extant species classified as threatened under IUCN criteria. We confirmed that parrots have a lower Red List Index (higher aggregate extinction risk) than other comparable bird groups, and modeled the factors associated with extinction risk. Our analyses included intrinsic biological, life history and ecological attributes, external anthropogenic threats, and socio-economic variables associated with the countries where the parrot species occur, while we controlled for phylogenetic dependence among species. We found that the likelihood of parrot species being classified as threatened was less for species with larger historical distribution size, but was greater for species with high forest dependency, large body size, long generation time, and greater proportion of the human population living in urban areas in the countries encompassing the parrots’ home ranges. The severity of extinction risk (from vulnerable to critically endangered) was positively related to the per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of the countries of occurrence, endemism to a single country, and lower for species used as pets. A disproportionate number of 16 extinct parrot species were endemic to islands and single countries, and were large bodied, habitat specialists. Agriculture, hunting, trapping, and logging are the most frequent threats to parrots worldwide, with variation in importance among regions. We use multiple methods to rank countries with disproportionately high numbers of threatened parrot species. Our results promote understanding of global and regional factors associated with endangerment in this highly threatened taxonomic group, and will enhance the prioritization of conservation actions.