钙指示剂的发展及其研究现状

钙指示剂常被用于细胞及细胞器钙信号的检测,是钙信号转导研究中必不可少的工具.目前的钙指示剂分两大类,包括化学钙指示剂,如Fura-2、Indo-1、Fluo-4等,和基因编码的钙指示蛋白如D1ER、GCaMP、CEPIA1er等.随着技术的发展及研究需求的不断提升,各版本的钙指示剂也在不断更新.本文对已有的钙指示剂进行了系统地梳理,详细介绍了目前应用最为广泛的钙指示剂,总结了现有钙指示剂的优缺点,并对可优化提升的部分进行了展望,旨在为钙指示剂研究的进一步发展提供一些思路.     

Ganglioside Function in Calcium Homeostasis and Signaling

Ganglioside function in eukaryotic cells encompasses a variety of modulatory interactions related to both development and mature cellular behavior. In relation to the nervous system this includes induction of neurite outgrowth and trophic/neuroprotective phenomena; more generally this applies to ganglioside effects on receptor function, adhesion reactions, and signal transduction mechanisms in neural and extraneural systems. Underlying many of these trophic effects are ganglioside-induced changes in cellular calcium, accomplished through modulation of Ca²⁺ influx channels, Ca²⁺ exchange proteins, and various Ca²⁺-dependent enzymes that are altered through association with gangliosides. A clear distinction needs to be drawn between intrinsic functions of gangliosides as naturally expressed by the cell and activities created by application of exogenous ganglioside(s) that may or may not reflect natural function. This review attempts to summarize findings in this area and point to possible future directions of research.     

Heparin inhibits the reconstituted plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase from porcine brain synaptosome

Heparin has been shown to be involved in the regulation of cellular Ca(2+) by binding to many proteins with high affinity. Here we examined the effects of heparin on the plasma membrane Ca(2+)-ATPase from porcine brain synaptosome. Our results showed that heparin dramatically inhibited the ATP hydrolysis and Ca(2+) uptake in the presence and absence of calmodulin. Together with controlled proteolysis by trypsin, we concluded that the calmodulin-binding domain of the plasma membrane Ca(2+)-ATPase was less important for the heparin inhibition. Excess phosphatidylserine was able to eliminate the heparin inhibition. We observed that Ca(2+) affinity kept no obvious changes, but the ATP affinity of plasma membrane Ca(2+)-ATPase was apparently decreased in the presence of heparin. Our results indicated that heparin had little effects on ATP or Ca(2+) binding sites of the enzyme.     

Aging-related changes in calcium oscillations in fertilized mouse oocytes

Aging of oocytes, being not fertilized after ovulation for a prolonged time, considerably affects normal development of the fertilized oocyte. We examined effects of the aging on a series of highly repetitive Ca²⁺ transients commonly seen in fertilized mouse oocytes (Ca²⁺ oscillations). Frequency of Ca²⁺ oscillations in the aged oocyte [20 hrs after induction of superovulation by i.p. human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)] was significantly higher (34.1 ± 5.8 1/hr) than the fresh oocyte (14 hr post-hCG, 21.8 ± 7.9 1/hr). Rates of rise and fall of individual Ca²⁺ transient in the aged oocyte were significantly slower than the fresh oocyte, whereas durations of individual Ca²⁺ transients were similar. When extracellular Ca²⁺ was raised from 2.04 mM to 5.00 mM, aged oocytes showed significant prolongation of the duration of individual Ca²⁺ transient, that resulted in a sustained elevation of intracellular Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]_i) in 33% of the aged oocyte. Transient increase in [Ca²⁺]_i by photolysis of a caged Ca²⁺, Nitr-5, injected into cytoplasm was completely restored in the fresh oocyte [fluorescence intensity of [Ca²⁺]_i indicator dye Fluo-3 (F₄₈₀) returned to 97 ± 2% of the control level, time constant = 37 ± 9 sec]. In contrast, in the aged oocyte, restoration of F₄₈₀ following Nitr-5 photolysis was incomplete (115 ± 12% of the control) and slow (time constant = 64 ± 23 sec). Because inhibition of the Ca²⁺ pump of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by 5 μM thapsigargin almost completely inhibited restoration of F₄₈₀ following Nitr-5 photolysis in the fresh oocyte, we conclude that the aging-related changes in Ca²⁺ oscillations may be accounted for by dysfunction of intracellular Ca²⁺ regulation, presumably of the Ca²⁺ pump of the ER. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 48:383–390, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Subcellular calcium oscillators and calcium influx support agonist-induced calcium waves in cultured astrocytes

We have analysed Ca²⁺ waves induced by norepinephrine in rat cortical astrocytes in primary culture using fluorescent indicators fura-2 or fluo-3. The temporal pattern of the average [Ca²⁺]_i responses were heterogeneous from cell to cell and most cells showed an oscillatory response at concentrations of agonist around EC₅₀ (200 nM). Upon receptor activation, [Ca²⁺]_i signals originated from a single cellular locus and propagated throughout the cell as a wave. Wave propagation was supported by specialized regenerative calcium release loci along the length of the cell. The periods of oscillations, amplitudes, and the rates of [Ca²⁺]_i rise of these subcellular oscillators differ from each other. These intrinsic kinetic properties of the regenerative loci support local waves when stimulation is continued over long periods of time. The presence of local waves at specific, invariant cellular sites and their inherent kinetic properties provide for the unique and reproducible pattern of response seen in a given cell. We hypothesize that these loci are local specializations in the endoplasmic reticulum where the magnitude of the regenerative Ca²⁺ release is higher than other regions of the cell. Removal of extracellular Ca²⁺ or blockade of Ca²⁺ channels by inorganic cations (Cd²⁺ and Ni²⁺) during stimulation of adrenergic receptors alter the sustained plateau component of the [Ca²⁺]_i response. In the absence of Ca²⁺ release, due to store depletion with thapsigargin, agonist occupation alone does not induce Ca²⁺ influx in astrocytes. This finding suggests that, under these conditions, receptor-operated Ca²⁺ entry is not operative. Furthermore, our experiments provide evidence for local Ca²⁺ oscillations in cells which can support both wave propagation as well as spatially discrete Ca²⁺ signalling.     

Mode of action of proctolin on locust visceral muscle

Proctolin increases the frequency and amplitude of myogenic contractions and results in a sustained contraction of the oviducts of Locusta migratoria. The possible mode of action of proctolin receptors on this visceral muscle has been investigated. Calcium-free saline, containing either 20 mM magnesium ions or 100 μM EGTA, inhibited myogenic contractions, lowered basal tension, and abolished all the effects of proctolin following a 20 min incubation. These effects were reversible upon washing with normal saline. Similar results were obtained with normal saline containing 10 mM cobalt ions. Nifedipine at 50 μM lowered basal tension, abolished myogenic contractions, and reduced the proctolin-induced sustained contraction by 42-62% at 0.5 nM proctolin and by 33-37% at 5 nM proctolin. Similar results were obtained with 100 μM verapamil. Proctolin was still capable of eliciting considerable contractions (25-67% of controls) in preparations depolarized with 100 mM potassium saline. The removal of calcium from the high-potassium saline reversibly abolished the potassium-induced contraction and reversibly blocked the action of proctolin. Nifedipine was ineffective in blocking the action of proctolin in high-potassium saline. Neither cyclic AMP levels nor cyclic GMP levels of the lateral oviducts were elevated by proctolin in the presence of a phosphodiesterase inhibitor. The results indicate that proctolin mediates its effects via an influx of external calcium ions. This calcium appears to enter through two channels, a voltage-dependent channel and a receptor-operated channel. Cyclic nucleotides do not appear to be involved in the action of proctolin in this visceral muscle.     

Stretch-activated calcium channels relay fast calcium waves propagated by calcium-induced calcium influx

For nearly 30 years, fast calcium waves have been attributed to a regenerative process propagated by CICR (calcium-induced calcium release) from the endoplasmic reticulum. Here, I propose a model containing a new subclass of fast calcium waves which is propagated by CICI (calcium-induced calcium influx) through the plasma membrane. They are called fast CICI waves. These move at the order of 100 to 1000 microm/s (at 20 degrees C), rather than the order of 3 to 30 microm/s found for CICR. Moreover, in this proposed subclass, the calcium influx which drives calcium waves is relayed by stretch-activated calcium channels. This model is based upon reports from approx. 60 various systems. In seven of these reports, calcium waves were imaged, and, in five of these, evidence was presented that these waves were regenerated by CICI. Much of this model involves waves that move along functioning flagella and cilia. In these systems, waves of local calcium influx are thought to cause waves of local contraction by inducing the sliding of dynein or of kinesin past tubulin microtubules. Other cells which are reported to exhibit waves, which move at speeds in the fast CICI range, include ones from a dozen protozoa, three polychaete worms, three molluscs, a bryozoan, two sea urchins, one arthropod, four insects, Amphioxus, frogs, two fish and a vascular plant (Equisetum), together with numerous healthy, as well as cancerous, mammalian cells, including ones from human. In two of these systems, very gentle local mechanical stimulation is reported to initiate waves. In these non-flagellar systems, the calcium influxes are thought to speed the sliding of actinomyosin filaments past each other. Finally, I propose that this mechanochemical model could be tested by seeing if gentle mechanical stimulation induces waves in more of these systems and, more importantly, by imaging the predicted calcium waves in more of them.     

Plasma membrane calcium pump and sodium-calcium exchanger in maintenance and control of calcium concentrations in platelets

The purpose of this research was to elucidate the activity of the mechanisms responsible for control of cytosolic calcium concentration in platelets by modeling the time-course of the concentration changing in response to discharge of the intracellular stores or store-operated calcium entry (SOCE). The parameters estimated as a result of model fitting to experimental data are related to physiological or pathological state of the cells. It has been shown that: (a) the time-course is determined by the passive calcium fluxes and activities of the corresponding mechanisms; (b) the decline in the concentration (after its rise) develops due to activity of plasma membrane calcium ATPase (PMCA) both in the case of discharge of the stores of platelets contained in calcium-free medium and in the case of SOCE; (c) impulsive extrusion of calcium in response to its sudden influx, presumably, is the main function of PMCA; (d) the function of sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX) is to extrude calcium excess by permanent counteracting its influx.     

Calcium in plant defence-signalling pathways

In plant cells, the calcium ion is a ubiquitous intracellular second messenger involved in numerous signalling pathways. Variations in the cytosolic concentration of Ca2+ ([Ca2+]cyt) couple a large array of signals and responses. Here we concentrate on calcium signalling in plant defence responses, particularly on the generation of the calcium signal and downstream calcium-dependent events participating in the establishment of defence responses with special reference to calcium-binding proteins.     

Light Dependence of Calcium and Membrane Potential Measured in Blowfly Photoreceptors In Vivo

Light adaptation in insect photoreceptors is caused by an increase in the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration. To better understand this process, we measured the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration in vivo as a function of adapting light intensity in the white-eyed blowfly mutant chalky. We developed a technique to measure the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration under conditions as natural as possible. The calcium indicator dyes Oregon Green 1, 2, or 5N (Molecular Probes, Inc., Eugene, OR) were iontophoretically injected via an intracellular electrode into a photoreceptor cell in the intact eye; the same electrode was also used to measure the membrane potential. The blue-induced green fluorescence of these dyes could be monitored by making use of the optics of the facet lens and the rhabdomere waveguide. The use of the different Ca²⁺-sensitive dyes that possess different affinities for Ca²⁺ allowed the quantitative determination of the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration in the steady state. Determining the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration as a function of the adapting light intensity shows that the Ca²⁺ concentration is regulated in a graded fashion over the whole dynamic range where a photoreceptor cell can respond to light. When a photoreceptor is adapted to bright light, the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration reaches stable values higher than 10 μM. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that the logarithm of the increase in cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration is linear with the logarithm of the light intensity. From the estimated values of the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration, we conclude that the Ca²⁺-buffering capacity is limited. The percentage of the Ca²⁺ influx that is buffered gradually decreases with increasing Ca²⁺ concentrations; at cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration levels above 10 μM, buffering becomes minimal.     

Modeling the Calcium Signaling in Stomatal Guard Cells under the Action of Abscisic Acid

A theoretical model of calcium signaling is presented that simulates oscillations of cytoplasmic calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺]_cyt) in stomatal guard cells under the action of abscisic acid. The model is based on the kinetics of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive calcium channels of endoplasmic reticulum and cyclic ADP-ribose-sensitive calcium channels of the tonoplast. The operation of two energy-dependent pumps—the Ca²⁺-ATPase of the endoplasmic reticulum and the Ca²⁺/H⁺ antiporter of the tonoplast—is also included in the model. It is shown that the removal of excessive Ca²⁺ from the cytoplasm by the tonoplast Ca²⁺/H⁺ antiporter is the main factor accounting for generation of [Ca²⁺]_cyt oscillations at a wide range of ABA concentrations (0.01–1 M). The long period of [Ca²⁺]_cyt oscillations in plant cells is explained by a slow release from inhibition of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-gated calcium channels.     

Modulation of the voltage sensor of L-type Ca2+ channels by intracellular Ca2+

Both intracellular calcium and transmembrane voltage cause inactivation, or spontaneous closure, of L-type (CaV1.2) calcium channels. Here we show that long-lasting elevations of intracellular calcium to the concentrations that are expected to be near an open channel (>/=100 microM) completely and reversibly blocked calcium current through L-type channels. Although charge movements associated with the opening (ON) motion of the channel's voltage sensor were not altered by high calcium, the closing (OFF) transition was impeded. In two-pulse experiments, the blockade of calcium current and the reduction of gating charge movements available for the second pulse developed in parallel during calcium load. The effect depended steeply on voltage and occurred only after a third of the total gating charge had moved. Based on that, we conclude that the calcium binding site is located either in the channel's central cavity behind the voltage-dependent gate, or it is formed de novo during depolarization through voltage-dependent rearrangements just preceding the opening of the gate. The reduction of the OFF charge was due to the negative shift in the voltage dependence of charge movement, as previously observed for voltage-dependent inactivation. Elevation of intracellular calcium concentration from approximately 0.1 to 100-300 microM sped up the conversion of the gating charge into the negatively distributed mode 10-100-fold. Since the "IQ-AA" mutant with disabled calcium/calmodulin regulation of inactivation was affected by intracellular calcium similarly to the wild-type, calcium/calmodulin binding to the "IQ" motif apparently is not involved in the observed changes of voltage-dependent gating. Although calcium influx through the wild-type open channels does not cause a detectable negative shift in the voltage dependence of their charge movement, the shift was readily observable in the Delta1733 carboxyl terminus deletion mutant, which produces fewer nonconducting channels. We propose that the opening movement of the voltage sensor exposes a novel calcium binding site that mediates inactivation.     

Tissue-Specific Mitochondrial Decoding of Cytoplasmic Ca2+ Signals Is Controlled by the Stoichiometry of MICU1/2 and MCU

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天然产物中的钙离子拮抗剂

钙离子拮抗剂是一类广泛应用于心血管疾病以及其它多种疾病的药物。本文综述了来源于天然产物的钙离子拮抗剂。     

天津盐渍化生境54种植物钙晶体与钙组分特征

植物钙包括游离态的Ca²⁺和结合态易溶、微溶和难溶于水的钙盐,而难溶于水的钙盐常会形成钙晶体.为了解盐渍化生境中不同生长型植物体内的钙状况,本文对天津市54种植物进行了钙晶体的镜检和钙组分的测定.结果表明： 在盐渍化生境中的54种植物体内,有38种植物体内镜检到较多的钙晶体,其中37种植物体内为以簇晶和方晶为主的草酸钙晶体,只在桑科的无花果叶片中观察到内含碳酸钙晶体的钟乳体.按生长型统计,落叶乔、灌木体内的草酸钙晶体较多,藤本植物体内的草酸钙晶体较少,而草本植物和常绿乔木体内未镜检到草酸钙晶体.同时,从乔木、灌木、藤本到草本,植物体内盐酸溶性钙含量逐渐减少而水溶性钙含量逐渐增多,且草本植物体内的水溶性钙含量显著高于乔木和灌木.在盐渍化生境中,植物体内的钙晶体和钙组分因生长型不同而有所差异,草酸钙在落叶乔、灌木抵御盐分胁迫中发挥着重要作用.     

构建钙荧光探针细胞用于探究胞浆和线粒体钙对ATP刺激的响应

目的:构建表达基因编辑钙探针(GECIs)的细胞系HeLa-GECIs,探究细胞应答外界ATP刺激中钙离子在细胞内的响应和变化。方法:分别用能够直接通过荧光强度反映细胞胞浆内和线粒体内钙离子相对浓度的2种钙探针cyto-GCaMP6和4mt-GCaMP6感染HeLa细胞,获得2种表达钙离子探针的HeLa细胞系;在感染了2种腺病毒探针24 h后,用共聚焦荧光显微镜检测荧光探针在HeLa细胞内的表达情况;在表达2种钙探针的细胞的培养基中加入外源ATP,用Time-lapse成像动态观测技术观察HeLa细胞内钙离子对外环境中ATP的响应。结果:共聚焦荧光显微镜观察,确定95%以上的细胞表达了对应的钙离子指示荧光探针;Time-lapse成像动态观测技术观察发现,在细胞培养基中加入ATP后,细胞胞浆钙探针荧光强度瞬时(3～6 s)升至10倍,200 s后逐渐降低到基础水平;线粒体钙到达峰值(4倍)的时间稍滞后(5～8 s),并且回落更慢,300 s时至1.5倍。在ATP受体P2X7抑制剂A438079预处理的实验组,上述胞浆钙和线粒体钙浓度上升不明显。结论:构建了能在活体细胞内通过荧光探针实时监测钙离子响应胞外ATP刺激的细胞实验体系,为进一步深入探究ATP等危险信号导致细胞的炎性损伤机制奠定了基础。     

Recent structural and functional insights into the family of sodium calcium exchangers

Maintenance of calcium homeostasis is necessary for the development and survival of all animals. Calcium ions modulate excitability and bind effectors capable of initiating many processes such as muscular contraction and neurotransmission. However, excessive amounts of calcium in the cytosol or within intracellular calcium stores can trigger apoptotic pathways in cells that have been implicated in cardiac and neuronal pathologies. Accordingly, it is critical for cells to rapidly and effectively regulate calcium levels. The Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchangers (NCX), Na⁺/Ca²⁺/K⁺ exchangers (NCKX), and Ca²⁺/Cation exchangers (CCX) are the three classes of sodium calcium antiporters found in animals. These exchanger proteins utilize an electrochemical gradient to extrude calcium. Although they have been studied for decades, much is still unknown about these proteins. In this review, we examine current knowledge about the structure, function, and physiology and also discuss their implication in various developmental disorders. Finally, we highlight recent data characterizing the family of sodium calcium exchangers in the model system, Caenorhabditis elegans, and propose that C. elegans may be an ideal model to complement other systems and help fill gaps in our knowledge of sodium calcium exchange biology. genesis 52:93–109. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

匹伐他汀钙与阿托伐他汀钙治疗冠心病的临床疗效及安全性比较

目的:观察和比较匹伐他汀钙与阿托伐他汀钙治疗冠心病的临床疗效及安全性。方法:选取2016年3月到2018年12月于我院就诊的冠心病患者共100例,将其按照入院编号随机分为两组,匹伐他汀钙组(50例)与阿托伐他汀钙组(50例)。在服药前及服药后第6、12个月,检测和比较两组血糖(Glu)、糖化血红蛋白(HbA1c)、超敏C反应蛋白(hsCRP)、总胆固醇(TC)、甘油三酯(TG)、低密度脂蛋白胆固醇(LDL-C)、高密度脂蛋白胆固醇(HDL-C)、谷丙转苷酶(ALT)、谷草转氨酶(AST)、肌酐(Cr)、肌酸激酶(CK)水平的变化。结果:治疗后6、12个月,匹伐他汀钙组血清HDL-C水平较治疗前显著升高(P0.05),而血清hsCRP水平明显降低(P0.05),阿托伐他汀钙组HDL-C、hsCRP与治疗前比较差异均没有统计学意义(P0.05)。治疗后12个月,阿托伐他汀钙组HbA1c较治疗前显著升高(P0.05),而匹伐他汀钙组与治疗前比较差异没有统计学意义(P0.05)。治疗后6、12个月,两组患者血清TC、LDL-C水平均较治疗前明显降低(P0.05),两组患者血清TG、Glu、ALT、AST、Cr、CK水平较治疗前差异无明显统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:匹伐他汀钙和阿托伐他汀钙治疗均能够降低冠心病患者的血清LDL-C、TC、TG水平,而匹伐他汀钙同时可升高HDL-C,降低血清hs CRP水平,并且不增加新发糖尿病的风险。