Intrathecal Infusion of Hydrogen-Rich Normal Saline Attenuates Neuropathic Pain via Inhibition of Activation of Spinal Astrocytes and Microglia in Rats

Background

Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species are key molecules that mediate neuropathic pain. Although hydrogen is an established antioxidant, its effect on chronic pain has not been characterized. This study was to investigate the efficacy and mechanisms of hydrogen-rich normal saline induced analgesia.

Methodology/Principal findings

In a rat model of neuropathic pain induced by L5 spinal nerve ligation (L5 SNL), intrathecal injection of hydrogen-rich normal saline relieved L5 SNL-induced mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia. Importantly, repeated administration of hydrogen-rich normal saline did not lead to tolerance. Preemptive treatment with hydrogen-rich normal saline prevented development of neuropathic pain behavior. Immunofluorochrome analysis revealed that hydrogen-rich normal saline treatment significantly attenuated L5 SNL-induced increase of 8-hydroxyguanosine immunoreactive cells in the ipsilateral spinal dorsal horn. Western blot analysis of SDS/PAGE-fractionated tyrosine-nitrated proteins showed that L5 SNL led to increased expression of tyrosine-nitrated Mn-containing superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) in the spinal cord, and hydrogen-rich normal saline administration reversed the tyrosine-nitrated MnSOD overexpression. We also showed that the analgesic effect of hydrogen-rich normal saline was associated with decreased activation of astrocytes and microglia, attenuated expression of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in the spinal cord.

Conclusion/Significance

Intrathecal injection of hydrogen-rich normal saline produced analgesic effect in neuropathic rat. Hydrogen-rich normal saline-induced analgesia in neuropathic rats is mediated by reducing the activation of spinal astrocytes and microglia, which is induced by overproduction of hydroxyl and peroxynitrite.     

小胶质细胞在神经病理性疼痛中的作用

神经病理性疼痛对患者的生理和心理健康都有着极大的影响。近几年来的研究表明,外周神经炎症或损伤激活的小胶质细胞通过表达及释放一系列介质分子,在神经病理性疼痛的产生和传递通路中发挥重要的调制作用。激活的小胶质细胞与神经元之间信息交互传递从而影响痛敏行为的这一崭新模式极大地推进了人们对于疼痛的理解。同时也为以小胶质细胞作为靶点,开辟镇痛药物治疗的新方法提供了理论依据。     

Licochalcone A Attenuates Chronic Neuropathic Pain in Rats by Inhibiting Microglia Activation and Inflammation

Neurochemical Research - Immune response plays a vital role in the pathogenesis of neuropathic pain. Immune response-targeted therapy becomes an effective strategy for treating neuropathic pain....     

Gamma Knife Irradiation of Injured Sciatic Nerve Induces Histological and Behavioral Improvement in the Rat Neuropathic Pain Model

We examined the effects of gamma knife (GK) irradiation on injured nerves using a rat partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSL) model. GK irradiation was performed at one week after ligation and nerve preparations were made three weeks after ligation. GK irradiation is known to induce immune responses such as glial cell activation in the central nervous system. Thus, we determined the effects of GK irradiation on macrophages using immunoblot and histochemical analyses. Expression of Iba-1 protein, a macrophage marker, was further increased in GK-treated injured nerves as compared with non-irradiated injured nerves. Immunohistochemical study of Iba-1 in GK-irradiated injured sciatic nerves demonstrated Iba-1 positive macrophage accumulation to be enhanced in areas distal to the ligation point. In the same area, myelin debris was also more efficiently removed by GK-irradiation. Myelin debris clearance by macrophages is thought to contribute to a permissive environment for axon growth. In the immunoblot study, GK irradiation significantly increased expressions of βIII-tubulin protein and myelin protein zero, which are markers of axon regeneration and re-myelination, respectively. Toluidine blue staining revealed the re-myelinated fiber diameter to be larger at proximal sites and that the re-myelinated fiber number was increased at distal sites in GK-irradiated injured nerves as compared with non-irradiated injured nerves. These results suggest that GK irradiation of injured nerves facilitates regeneration and re-myelination. In a behavior study, early alleviation of allodynia was observed with GK irradiation in PSL rats. When GK-induced alleviation of allodynia was initially detected, the expression of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), a potent analgesic factor, was significantly increased by GK irradiation. These results suggested that GK irradiation alleviates allodynia via increased GDNF. This study provides novel evidence that GK irradiation of injured peripheral nerves may have beneficial effects.     

罗哌卡因抑制脊髓胶质细胞的激活而减轻CCI大鼠的神经病理性疼痛

目的:通过硬膜外注射局麻药罗哌卡因,评价其对神经病理性疼痛模型大鼠的作用及其机制.方法:在坐骨神经损伤神经病理性疼痛大鼠模型(CCI)术后7d,进行硬膜外置管手术,在术后8d和11d由硬膜外导管注入罗哌卡因,观测CCI大鼠机械痛阈(PWT)和脊髓后角纤维酸性蛋白(GFAP)的变化.结果:硬膜外注射罗哌卡因能够升高CCI大鼠患肢的机械痛阈,降低脊髓后角GFAP的表达.结论:在CCI大鼠模型硬膜外注射罗哌卡因可以较长时间抑制脊髓胶质细胞的激活,从而减轻神经病理性疼痛.     

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) Induces Analgesia in Rats with Neuropathic Pain and Alcohol Abstinence

Neurochemical Research - Neuromodulatory techniques have been studied to treat drug addiction or compulsive eating as well as different chronic pain conditions, such as neuropathic and inflammatory...     

IL-5 Induces Proliferation and Activation of Microglia via an Unknown Receptor

While the effects of interleukin-3 (IL-3) and granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) on microglia are well documented, very little is known about the effects of a related cytokine, interleukin-5 (IL-5). We therefore undertook studies to determine how IL-5 alters various aspects of microglial functioning. Treatment of microglia with IL-5 resulted in the induction of proliferation at levels similar to those induced by GM-CSF. IL-5 also increased cellular metabolism of microglial cells. To determine whether increased metabolism correlated with activation of microglia, we measured levels of nitrite, a breakdown product of nitric oxide. Treatment of microglial cultures with IL-5 increased nitrite levels, while GM-CSF treatment had no effect. Treatment of microglia with IL-5 did not cause activation of the signal transduction pathways linked to the classical IL-5 receptor, STAT5A/5B and ERK1 and ERK2. It is therefore likely that the effects of IL-5 on microglia are not mediated via the classical IL-5 receptor, but rather via a novel receptor.     

普瑞巴林对神经病理性痛大鼠行为学的影响

目的:探讨普瑞巴林对神经病理性痛大鼠行为学的影响.方法:建立大鼠神经病理性痛模型(CCI模型),取40只雄性Sprague-Dawley大鼠随机分成4组,Ⅰ组为空白对照组,Ⅱ组为假手术组,Ⅲ组为CCI+普瑞巴林治疗组,Ⅲ组在术后第1夭开始灌胃给予3 mg/kg普瑞巴林,Ⅳ组为CCI手术组.分别于术前0 d及术后1 d、3 d、5 d、7 d、9 d、11 d、14d以热辐射法测定热缩足反射潜伏期(Paw withdrawal thermal latency, PWTL),观察神经病理性痛大鼠行为学变化.结果:术后14 d,Ⅳ组和Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ组相比较,大鼠后爪的热痛敏阈值明显降低(P<0.01);Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ组之间相比,大鼠后爪的热痛敏阚值差异没有显著性(P>0.05).结论:普瑞巴林可以缓解神经病理性痛大鼠的慢性神经病理痛行为学表现.     

Crosstalk between Spinal Astrocytes and Neurons in Nerve Injury-Induced Neuropathic Pain

Emerging research implicates the participation of spinal dorsal horn (SDH) neurons and astrocytes in nerve injury-induced neuropathic pain. However, the crosstalk between spinal astrocytes and neurons in neuropathic pain is not clear. Using a lumbar 5 (L5) spinal nerve ligation (SNL) pain model, we testified our hypothesis that SDH neurons and astrocytes reciprocally regulate each other to maintain the persistent neuropathic pain states. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) was used as the astrocytic specific marker and Fos, protein of the protooncogene c-fos, was used as a marker for activated neurons. SNL induced a significant mechanical allodynia as well as activated SDH neurons indicated by the Fos expression at the early phase and activated astrocytes with the increased expression of GFAP during the late phase of pain, respectively. Intrathecal administration of c-fos antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (ASO) or astroglial toxin L-α-aminoadipate (L-AA) reversed the mechanical allodynia, respectively. Immunofluorescent histochemistry revealed that intrathecal administration of c-fos ASO significantly suppressed activation of not only neurons but also astrocytes induced by SNL. Meanwhile, L-AA shortened the duration of neuronal activation by SNL. Our data offers evidence that neuronal and astrocytic activations are closely related with the maintenance of neuropathic pain through a reciprocal “crosstalk”. The current study suggests that neuronal and non-neuronal elements should be taken integrally into consideration for nociceptive transmission, and that the intervention of such interaction may offer some novel pain therapeutic strategies.     

Basolateral Amygdala Lesion Inhibits the Development of Pain Chronicity in Neuropathic Pain Rats

Background

Chronicity of pain is one of the most interesting questions in chronic pain study. Clinical and experimental data suggest that supraspinal areas responsible for negative emotions such as depression and anxiety contribute to the chronicity of pain. The amygdala is suspected to be a potential structure for the pain chronicity due to its critical role in processing negative emotions and pain information.

Objective

This study aimed to investigate whether amygdala or its subregions, the basolateral amygdala (BLA) and the central medial amygdala (CeA), contributes to the pain chronicity in the spared nerve injury (SNI)-induced neuropathic pain model of rats.

Methodology/Principal Findings

(1) Before the establishment of the SNI-induced neuropathic pain model of rats, lesion of the amygdaloid complex with stereotaxic injection of ibotenic acid (IBO) alleviated mechanical allodynia significantly at days 7 and 14, even no mechanical allodynia at day 28 after SNI; Lesion of the BLA, but not the CeA had similar effects; (2) however, 7 days after SNI when the neuropathic pain model was established, lesion of the amygdala complex or the BLA or the CeA, mechanical allodynia was not affected.

Conclusion

These results suggest that BLA activities in the early stage after nerve injury might be crucial to the development of pain chronicity, and amygdala-related negative emotions and pain-related memories could promote pain chronicity.     

Spinal Microglia and Astrocytes: Two Key Players in Chronic Visceral Pain Pathogenesis

Neurochemical Research - Chronic visceral pain (CVP) is one of the common symptoms of many diseases triggered by underlying diseases of the internal organs of the human body. Its causes include...     

Epidermal Growth Factor Induces Proliferation and DNA Synthesis in Ciliate Cells

We studied the effect of murine epidermal growth factor on cell proliferation and DNA synthesis in macronuclei of ciliate Tetrahymena pyriformis Gl. Mitogenic effect of epidermal growth factor on proliferation-induced tetrahymena cells has been revealed. This effect is due to the induced progression of cells at G ₁ and, consequently, their earlier entering DNA synthesis phase of the first cell cycle. Epidermal growth factor had no mitogenic effect on the resting cells in a stationary culture (G ₀ phase) whose development is independent of the growth factors in the medium.     

Anti-Obesity Effects of Granulocyte-Colony Stimulating Factor in Otsuka-Long-Evans-Tokushima Fatty Rats

Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) has molecular structures and intracellular signaling pathways that are similar to those of leptin and ciliary neurotropic factor (CNTF). It also has immune-modulatory properties. Given that leptin and CNTF play important roles in energy homeostasis and that obesity is an inflammatory condition in adipose tissue, we hypothesized that G-CSF could also play a role in energy homeostasis. We treated 12 38-week-old male Otsuka-Long-Evans-Tokushima fatty rats (OLETF, diabetic) and 12 age-matched male Long-Evans-Tokushima rats (LETO, healthy) with 200 µg/day G-CSF or saline for 5 consecutive days. Body weight reduction was greater in G-CSF-treated OLETF (G-CSF/OLETF) than saline-treated OLETF (saline/OLETF) following 8 weeks of treatment (−6.9±1.6% vs. −3.1±2.2%, p<0.05). G-CSF treatment had no effect on body weight in LETO or on food intake in either OLETF or LETO. Body fat in G-CSF/OLETF was more reduced than in saline/OLETF (−32.2±3.1% vs. −20.8±6.2%, p<0.05). Energy expenditure was higher in G-CSF/OLETF from 4 weeks after the treatments than in saline/OLETF. Serum levels of cholesterol, triglyceride, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α were lower in G-CSF/OLETF than in saline/OLETF. Uncoupling protein-1 (UCP-1) expression in brown adipose tissue (BAT) was higher in G-CSF/OLETF than in saline/OLETF, but was unaffected in LETO. Immunofluorescence staining and PCR results revealed that G-CSF receptors were expressed in BAT. In vitro experiments using brown adipocyte primary culture revealed that G-CSF enhanced UCP-1 expression from mature brown adipocytes via p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. In conclusion, G-CSF treatment reduced body weight and increased energy expenditure in a diabetic model, and enhanced UCP-1 expression and decreased inflammatory cytokine levels may be associated with the effects of G-CSF treatment.     

Cholinergic Receptor Alterations in the Brain Stem of Spinal Cord Injured Rats

Cholinergic receptors in upper motor neurons of brain stem control locomotion and coordination. Present study unravels cholinergic alterations in brain stem during spinal cord injury to understand signalling pathway changes which may be associated with spinal cord injury mediated motor deficits. We evaluated cholinergic function in brain stem by studying the expression of choline acetyl transferase and acetylcholine esterase. We quantified metabotropic muscarinic cholinergic receptors by receptor assays for total muscarinic, muscarinic M1 and M3 receptor subunits, gene expression studies using Real Time PCR and confocal imaging using FITC tagged secondary antibodies. The gene expression of ionotropic nicotinic cholinergic receptors and confocal imaging were also studied. The results from our study showed metabolic disturbance in cholinergic pathway as choline acetyl transferase is down regulated and acetylcholine esterase is up regulated in spinal cord injury group. The significant decrease in muscarinic receptors showed by decreased receptor number along with down regulated gene expression and confocal imaging accounts for dysfunction of metabotropic acetylcholine receptors in spinal cord injury group. Ionotropic acetylcholine receptor alterations were evident from the decreased gene expression of alpha 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and confocal imaging. The motor coordination was analysed by Grid walk test which showed an increased foot slips in spinal cord injured rats. The significant reduction in brain stem cholinergic function might have intensified the motor dysfunction and locomotor disabilities.     

Early Repeated Administration of CXCR4 Antagonist AMD3100 Dose-Dependently Improves Neuropathic Pain in Rats After L5 Spinal Nerve Ligation

AMD3100 is a specific C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) antagonist which blocks the interaction between CXCR4 and CXCL12. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that AMD3100 has analgesic effects on many pathological pain states, including peripheral neuropathic pain. However, little is known about the underlying mechanisms. In the current study, we investigated the effect of different doses of AMD3100 on neuropathic pain in rats after L5 spinal nerve ligation. We used naloxone methiodide (NLXM) to further determine whether AMD3100-mediated analgesic effect was opioid-dependent. Behavioral study showed that early repeated administration of AMD3100 (2 and 5 mg/kg, i.p.) dose-dependently alleviates peripheral neuropathic pain. Flow cytometry, immunofluorescence and NLXM experiments showed that AMD3100 alleviates neuropathic pain partially by augmenting leukocyte-derived endogenous opioid secretion. Furthermore, we found that pro-inflammatory cytokines were down-regulated by AMD3100 using Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay. Our data indicate that AMD3100 dose-dependently alleviates neuropathic pain partially by augmenting leukocyte-derived endogenous opioid secretion. This finding suggests that AMD3100 may be a viable pharmacotherapeutic strategy for the treatment of neuropathic pain.     

Analgesic Activity of Catalpol in Rodent Models of Neuropathic Pain,and Its Spinal Mechanism

Neuropathic pain is a major health issue that represents considerable social and economic burden worldwidely. In this study, we investigated the potential of catalpol, an iridoid glucoside of Rehmannia glutinosa Steud, to alleviate neuropathic pain. The potential analgesic effects of catalpol were evaluated by chronic constriction injury (CCI) and lumbar 5 spinal nerve ligation (L5 SNL) model. In addition, we explored whether catalpol altered the degree of microglia activation and neuroinflammation in rat spinal cord after CCI induction. Repeated administration of catalpol (1, 5, 25, and 125 mg/kg) reversed mechanical allodynia induced by CCI and L5 SNL in a dose-dependent manner in rats. Levels of activated microglia, activated NF-κB, and proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) in lumber spinal cord were elevated in rats following CCI induction, and catalpol significantly inhibited these effects. Our results demonstrated that catalpol produces significant antinociceptive action in rodent behavioral models of neuropathic pain and that this effect is associated with modulation of neuroinflammation in spinal cord.     

脑源性神经营养因子促进海马神经干细胞的存活、增殖及向神经元分化

探讨脑源性神经营养因子(brain derived neurotrophic factor, BDNF)对海马神经干细胞(neural progenitor/stem cells, NPCs)的存活、增殖及分化的影响.采用无血清培养基体外分离、纯化、扩增胎鼠海马NPCs.通过细胞形态观察、nestin免疫荧光染色及血清促分化检测NPCs的干细胞特性; 采用神经球计数及神经球直径测定观察BDNF对NPCs的促增殖作用, 筛选出在适当细胞密度下, 促进NPCs增殖的有效浓度; 采用Tunel染色及全自动生化分析仪测定细胞培养上清液乳酸脱氢酶(lactic dehydrogenase, LDH)的含量探讨BDNF对海马NPCs存活的影响; 采用抗-b-微管蛋白(tubulin) III (Tuj-1)染色检测NPCs分化成神经元的百分率, 同时测定分化神经元突起的长度.分离的海马NPCs表现为nestin 免疫染色阳性, 具有自我增殖能力、且能分化为神经元和星形胶质细胞; 当细胞密度为5×105个/ ml 时, 10～200 ng/ml BDNF能显著促进NPCs的增殖, 其中40 ng/ml BDNF促增殖作用最强, 40 ng/ml BDNF能显著增大神经球直径; 40 ng/ml BDNF 显著减少NPCs的凋亡率(Tunel /DAPI ), 抑制LDH漏出; 40 ng/ml BDNF能显著促进NPCs分化为Tuj-1免疫染色阳性神经元, 且分化后神经元的突起长度显著大于对照组.上述结果提示: BDNF促进海马NPCs的存活、增殖及向神经元方向分化.