城市温室气体排放清单编制研究进展

温室气体排放清单是目前最常用的城市碳排放核算方法,有助于在大尺度上了解城市不同行业或部门的温室气体排放情况.然而,中国城市温室气体清单研究刚刚起步,研究成果还不多,尚缺乏系统、规范的城市温室气体研究方法和指标体系.概述了城市温室气体排放清单的主要参考编制方法,介绍了国内外城市温室气体清单的编制情况,对目前城市温室气体清单编制的特点进行了分析,总结了城市温室气体清单与国家温室气体清单在关键排放源、编制模式、方法体系等方面的差异;在此基础上结合我国城市实际,对适合中国城市的温室气体清单编制方法进行了探索,并针对清单编制过程中存在的具体问题提出了建议;最后对未来城市温室气体清单的发展趋势进行了展望,以期为中国温室气体清单编制及研究提供借鉴.     

西安市温室气体排放的动态分析及等级评估

为了解西安市温室气体排放的动态规律和排放水平,基于全球标杆的温室气体排放等级评价方法,并采用国际公认的《2006年IPCC国家温室气体清单指南》和基于IPCC的《省级温室气体编制指南》推荐的方法对西安市的温室气体排放进行了动态分析和排放等级评估。结果表明,从1995年到2011年,西安市温室气体排放呈快速上升趋势,16年间温室气体排放量从1207.16×104t上升为3934.17×104t,年均增高7.66%。增幅最高的是水泥温室气体(年均增高11.75%)、废弃物(8.77%)和能源(7.63%),农业年均降低1.74%,林业固碳年圴增加3.56%。从温室气体构成看,能源占80.13%—90.55%,水泥占1.75%—7.49%,农业占1.86%—8.01%,林业固碳占-2.58%—-5.22%,废物处理占7.52%—16.38%。可见能源消费的增加是导致西安市温室气体排放增长的主要原因,林业碳汇能力有待提高。万元GDP温室气体排放不断降低,说明西安市碳减排方面的科技进步在不断提高。人均、单位面积温室气体排放量和排放指数增速很快,年均增幅分别达5.84%、7.66%和6.84%。西安市温室气体排放等级持续增高,16年间从较低等级(Ⅰc)上升为中下等级(Ⅱa),目前距应对气候变暖目标(Ⅰb)已高出两个亚级,温室气体排放增高的趋势不容忽视。     

基于温室气体清单的河北省森林碳汇量研究

为考核地方温室气体减排, 国家启动了2005 年省级温室气体清单的编制试点工作。依据森林资源二类清查数据和IPCC2006 指南方法, 对河北省2005 年基于林业和土地利用变化的森林年碳汇量进行了研究。结果表明, 河北省2005 年森林和其它木质生物量年增长碳汇量233.24×10⁴ tC, 折合固定CO2 量855.23×10⁴ t, 主要来源于乔木林的净增长固碳, 灌木林和经济林由于2005 年总面积和生物量呈负增长, 而表现为净碳排放, 分别导致净碳排放1.34×10⁴ tC和22.63×10⁴ tC; 森林转化为非林地引起的碳排放量约1.64×10⁴ tC。二者相抵, 2005 年森林生物量净碳汇量为231.61×10⁴ tC, 折合CO2 吸收量849.22×10⁴ t, 全省森林和其它木质生物量总体表现为“碳吸收汇”的功能。     

土地利用变化对土壤温室气体排放通量影响研究进展

土壤是大气中主要温室气体(如CO2、CH4和N2O)重要的源或汇,土地利用方式的改变将会导致土壤相关微环境及其生理生化过程发生改变,从而显著影响土壤中温室气体的产生与排放。在全球变化和土地利用大幅度改变的背景下,国际上已逐步开展了关于土地利用变化对土壤温室气体通量的研究。本文在简要介绍土地利用变化与土壤温室气体通量研究的基础上,重点论述了农田、草地和森林互换、湿地向农田转变、不同土地利用类型(森林、草地、湿地和农田)内部变化对3种土壤温室气体排放的影响,并从3种土壤温室气体产生的关键过程简单阐述其主要影响机理。根据目前研究中存在的不足,提出了今后需要加强的领域,以期更好地揭示土地利用变化对土壤温室气体通量的影响及作用机理,为今后深入开展相关研究提供参考。     

工业城市(沈阳)能源消耗碳排放的影响因素分解及实证分析

沈阳作为我国东北地区中心城市和重工业城市,能源消费持续增长趋势及以煤为主的能源结构在短期内很难改变。由于能源消费是碳排放的主要来源,所以碳排放在未来一段时间必然会持续增长。论文根据《2006年IPCC温室气体排放清单指南》温室气体排放计算方法,并且充分考虑没有燃烧充分的燃料,计算了沈阳市2005-2009年能源消耗碳排放,采用LMDI(Logarithmic mean divisia index)分解法定量分析了单位GDP能耗、能源结构、经济发展对沈阳市能源消耗碳排放的影响。结果表明经济发展对沈阳市碳排放增长有促进作用,单位GDP能耗降低对碳排放呈现抑制作用,而能源结构对碳排放作用甚微。这说明以煤为主的能源结构未发生根本性的改变,经济规模的扩大使得单位GDP能耗抑制作用逐渐降低,碳排放将会持续增长。     

广东省土地利用变化和林业温室气体清单变化规律分析与预测

根据联合国气候变化框架协议的要求, 土地利用变化和林业(LUCF)温室气体清单是需要编制的五个部门(能 源、工业、农业、土地利用变化和林业、废弃物)的清单之一。研究省级 LUCF 动态变化对掌握该区域生态固碳的能力和潜力有重要意义。该研究选取广东省森林资源第六期(2002 年)、第七期(2007 年)、第八期(2012 年)一类清查数据, 采取省级 LUCF 温室气体清单编制的方法结合广东省实际情况, 在获取和测算广东省 2005 年、2010 年、2015 年LUCF 温室气体的活动水平、排放因子的基础上, 得出全省范围 LUCF 温室气体清单。并设置了 3 种情景, 对广东省未来 LUCF 领域碳储量和温室气体减排进行了预测。研究结果表明广东省 LUCF 净碳汇量呈增长的趋势, 增长的主要原因是乔木林碳吸收的增加量高于活立木消耗碳排放的变化量。期间, 活立木蓄积生长率从 7.98%(2005)增加到了9.61%(2015); 而采伐消耗率从 6.94%(2005)下降到了 5.54%(2015)。这些得益于 2005 至 2015 十年间广东省土地利用变化和林业领域在应对气候变化方面的政策、措施的实施。情景模拟结果表明如果未来措施有利于广东省活力木碳储量的增加, 广东省森林还将发挥较长时间持续的增汇作用。     

中国木质林产品碳贮量

一直以来,在国家温室气体清单的计量中,均假定森林采伐后其贮存的生物量碳在采伐年全部释放进入大气。实际上,森林采伐后形成的木质林产品中的碳并没有立即排放,而是在随后的数年或数十年间逐渐排放,部分以垃圾形式填埋的废旧木质林产品中的碳还可能得到长期保存。但是,由于不同的计量方法导致计量结果的不确定性,木质林产品碳贮量变化是否纳入国家温室气体清单土地利用、土地利用变化和林业(LULUCF)部门的计量和报告,还存在很大争议,这也是缔约方会议争论的焦点议题之一。许多国家在国家温室气体清单中报告了木质林产品碳贮量。采用IPCC好的做法指南提出的碳贮量变化法、大气通量法、生产国法和一阶衰变法计算了我国木质林产品碳贮量及其变化,比较了不同方法和不同数据源(我国统计数据和联合国粮食和农业组织(FAO)统计数据)计算得到的碳贮量的差异,并分析了产生差异的原因。结果表明:(1)我国木质林产品碳贮量一直处于增长趋势,1900~2003年年均增长量为2.25×106MgC.a-1,随着木质林产品消费量的增加,2020年碳贮量将达到6.14×108MgC。(2)3种计量方法计算结果差异显著,用碳贮量变化法计算2003年的碳贮量为2.35×108MgC,大气通量法为0.47×108MgC,生产国法为1.79×108MgC。由于我国是木质林产品生产及进口大国,运用碳贮量变化法,1900~2020年间碳贮量年变化的平均值比生产国法多1.17×106MgC,比大气通量法多5.66×106MgC。(3)用FAO数据计算我国2003年碳贮量,其结果是我国统计数据的2~7倍。     

草地土壤固碳潜力研究进展

土壤固碳功能和固碳潜力已成为全球气候变化和陆地生态系统研究的重点。草地土壤有机碳库,作为陆地土壤有机碳库的重要组成部分,其较小幅度的波动,将会影响整个陆地生态系统碳循环,进而影响全球气候变化。因此,深入研究草地土壤固碳功能和固碳潜力对于适应和减缓气候变化具有重要意义。在土壤固碳潜力相关概念界定基础上,结合《2006年IPCC国家温室气体清单指南》,从样点及区域尺度上综述了目前关于草地土壤固碳潜力的一般估算方法,同时对各类方法的特点及适用性进行了评述,提出了草地生态系统固碳潜力研究概念模型。最后在对草地土壤固碳的影响因素及固碳措施总结的基础上,阐明了草地土壤有机碳固定研究中存在的问题和发展前景。     

三江平原土地利用/覆被变化对区域植被碳储量的影响

通过历史时期地图数字化和遥感图像解译得到三江平原1954～2005年的6期土地利用/覆被数据。根据IPCC《2006指南》提供的方法,评估土地利用/覆被变化对三江平原植被碳储量的影响。结果表明:三江平原1954～2005年土地利用/覆被变化显著,农田大面积增加,沼泽湿地、林地、草地面积锐减;土地利用/覆被变化主要发生在农田、沼泽湿地、林地和草地之间;农田是沼泽湿地、林地、草地的主要转出对象,林地的主要转入来源为农田和草地,沼泽湿地的主要转入来源为农田和林地。1954～2005年共有1.07×10³km²林地、5.73×10³km²草地和2.59×10⁴km²沼泽湿地转出为农田。土地利用/覆被变化导致三江平原植被碳储量不断减少,1954～2005年三江平原植被碳储量共减少57.48Tg。林地、沼泽湿地、草地向农田的转化及林地向草地、沼泽湿地的转化导致植被碳储量减少97.06Tg,农田向林地、沼泽湿地、草地的转化及草地、沼泽湿地向林地转化导致植被碳储量增加39.58Tg。     

基于DNDC模型的稻田温室气体排放通量模拟

理解土地利用方式转变过程影响生态系统生物地球化学循环及温室气体排放的机理,并利用模型模拟土地利用方式转变过程对温室气体通量的影响是一项长期、艰巨的科学任务。本研究基于国际上广泛应用的生物地球化学过程模型(DNDC模型),结合气象、土壤和管理措施等数据,模拟了旱田转水田土地利用方式转变后稻田CH_4、CO_2和N_2O三种温室气体的通量和常年种植水稻的稻田温室气体通量,并将模拟值与观测值进行比较。结果表明:DNDC模型能够较好地模拟新、老稻田温室气体通量的季节变化,但对老稻田温室气体的排放通量模拟效果(R~20. 89,n=40,P0. 01)优于新转稻田(R~20.79,n=265,P0.01),且对CH_4和CO_2的模拟效果优于对N_2O的模拟效果;根据田间观测数据,改变模型模拟土地利用方式转换前后土壤SOC浓度和p H值,并不能完全模拟土地利用变化对温室气体的影响,微生物群落在土地利用方式转变过程中可能发生较大变化,需要在模型中进一步体现。通过模型模拟土地利用方式改变对温室气体排放的影响,可为国家温室气体、碳排放清单的编制及管理政策的制定提供参考依据。     

Estimating aboveground net biomass change for tropical and subtropical forests: Refinement of IPCC default rates using forest plot data

As countries advance in greenhouse gas (GHG) accounting for climate change mitigation, consistent estimates of aboveground net biomass change (?AGB) are needed. Countries with limited forest monitoring capabilities in the tropics and subtropics rely on IPCC 2006 default ?AGB rates, which are values per ecological zone, per continent. Similarly, research into forest biomass change at a large scale also makes use of these rates. IPCC 2006 default rates come from a handful of studies, provide no uncertainty indications and do not distinguish between older secondary forests and old‐growth forests. As part of the 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, we incorporate ?AGB data available from 2006 onwards, comprising 176 chronosequences in secondary forests and 536 permanent plots in old‐growth and managed/logged forests located in 42 countries in Africa, North and South America and Asia. We generated ?AGB rate estimates for younger secondary forests (≤20 years), older secondary forests (>20 years and up to 100 years) and old‐growth forests, and accounted for uncertainties in our estimates. In tropical rainforests, for which data availability was the highest, our ?AGB rate estimates ranged from 3.4 (Asia) to 7.6 (Africa) Mg ha^?1 year^?1 in younger secondary forests, from 2.3 (North and South America) to 3.5 (Africa) Mg ha^?1 year^?1 in older secondary forests, and 0.7 (Asia) to 1.3 (Africa) Mg ha^?1 year^?1 in old‐growth forests. We provide a rigorous and traceable refinement of the IPCC 2006 default rates in tropical and subtropical ecological zones, and identify which areas require more research on ?AGB. In this respect, this study should be considered as an important step towards quantifying the role of tropical and subtropical forests as carbon sinks with higher accuracy; our new rates can be used for large‐scale GHG accounting by governmental bodies, nongovernmental organizations and in scientific research.     

Methane emission factors from cattle manure in Mexico

Factors responsible for methane emission from cattle manure representing diverse climates, systems and functions of cattle production are presented. These factors were obtained by means of an experimental methodology developed for this project. It was considered that the temperature, moisture, handling of manure and the animals' feed ration affect methane production. Drying conditions and fermentation of manure in cool, temperate and warm climates were simulated in the laboratory. Cattle manure was obtained from animals in intensive, semi-intensive and extensive production systems; for dairy, non-dairy and double purpose cattle production functions. Also handling of manure in dry lot, pasture and solid storage was considered. Results suggest that the dominant factor in methane emissions is the feed ration, followed by fermentation temperature and the excreta moisture content. The emission factors obtained in this work are at least a factor of five smaller than those proposed in the revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories for countries like Mexico.     

The US Fish and Wildlife Service's National Wetlands Inventory Project

In 1974, the US Fish and Wildlife Service directed its Office of Biological Services to design and conduct an inventory of the Nation's wetlands. The mandate was to develop and disseminate a technically sound, comprehensive data base concerning the characteristics and extent of the Nation's wetlands. The purpose of this data base is to foster wise use of the Nation's wetlands and to expedite decisions that may affect this important resource. To accomplish this, state-of-the-art principles and methodologies pertaining to all aspects of wetland inventory were assimilated and developed by the newly formed project. By 1979, when the National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) Project became operational, it was clear that two very different kinds of information were needed. First, detailed wetland maps were needed for site-specific decisions. Second, national statistics developed through statistical sampling on the current status and trends of wetlands were needed in order to provide information to support the development or alteration of Federal programs and policies. The NWI has produced wetland maps (scale=1:24 000) for 74% of the conterminous United States. It has also produced wetland maps (scale=1:63 360) for 24% of Alaska. Nearly 9000 of these wetland maps, representing 16.7% of the continental United States, have been computerized (digitized). In addition to maps, the NWI has produced other valuable wetland products. These include a statistically-based report on the status and trends of wetlands that details gains and losses in United States wetlands that have occurred from the mid-1970's to the mid-1980's. Other wetland products include a list of wetland (hydric) soils, a national list of wetland plant species, wetland reports for certain individual States such as New Jersey and Florida, and a wetland values data base.     

Wetland restoration to enhance biodiversity in urban areas: a comparative analysis

Wetlands mitigation for any activity can be applied to avoid or minimize damage and restore, enhance, or create wetlands as well. New tools for mitigating and creating wetlands are available, including the Wetland Impact Assessment. This article explores many current issues in wetland mitigation and mitigation strategies, using case studies for illustration. We include some general guidelines for successful wetland mitigation based primarily on existing literature review in several cities. We use comparison and analyses on biodiversity improvement and various wetland functions, including flood-risk management, linking people to nature through urban regeneration, and connecting with the natural environment. Also, restoration, enhancement, mitigation, and creation analyses are included.     

Improving the accounting of field emissions in the carbon footprint of agricultural products: a comparison of default IPCC methods with readily available medium-effort modeling approaches

Purpose

The estimations of greenhouse gas (GHG) field emissions from fertilization and soil carbon changes are challenges associated with calculating the carbon footprint (CFP) of agricultural products. At the regional level, the IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (2006a) Tier 1 approach, based on default emission factors, insufficiently accounts for emission variability resulting from pedo-climatic conditions or management practices. However, Tier 2 and 3 approaches are usually considered too complex to be practicable. In this paper, we discuss different readily available medium-effort methods to improve the accuracy of GHG emission estimates.

Methods

We present four case studies—two wheat crops in Germany and two peach orchards in Italy—to test the performance of Tier 1, 2, and 3 methodologies and compare the estimated results with available field measurements. The methodologies selected at Tier 2 and Tier 3 level are characterized by simple implementation and data collection, for which only a medium level of effort for stakeholders is required. The Tier 2 method consists of calculating direct and indirect N₂O, emissions from fertilization with a multivariate empirical model which accounts for pedo-climatic and crop management conditions. The Tier 3 method entails simulation of soil carbon stock change using the Rothamsted carbon model.

Results and discussion

Relevant differences were found among the tested methodologies: in all case studies, the Tier 1 approach exceeded the Tier 2 estimations for fertilizer-induced emissions (up to +50 %) and the measurements. Using this higher Tier approach reduced the estimated CFP calculation of annual crops by 4 and 21 % and that of the perennial crop by 7 %. Removals related to positive soil carbon change calculated using the Tier 1 approach also exceeded the Tier 3 calculations for the studied annual crops (up to +90 %) but considerably underrated the Tier 3 estimations and measurements for perennial crops (?75 %). In this case, the impact of the selected Tier method on the final CFP results was even more relevant: an increase of 194 and 88 % for the studied annual crops and a decrease of 67 % for the perennial crop case study.

Conclusions

The use of higher Tiers for the estimation of land-based emissions is strongly recommended to improve the accuracy of the CFP results. The suggested medium-effort methods tested in this study represent a good compromise between complexity reduction and accuracy improvement and can be considered reliable for the assessment of GHG mitigation potentials.

     

孤立湿地研究进展

孤立湿地作为湿地的重要组成部分,在人类社会发展中作用逐渐凸显。对术语"孤立湿地"的定义国外进行较早,美国官方将孤立湿地定义为与可流动水体不相邻或不通过地表水相联系的湿地,而我国仅提出了与孤立湿地相关的概念,如"环型湿地"、"碟型洼地"、湿地的"景观破碎化"等。孤立湿地的类型与特征研究相对较少,没有形成完整的理论体系,仅提出孤立性、水文连通性、生物连通性等特征。孤立湿地的功能研究是孤立湿地研究的重点,从孤立湿地的气候、水文和水质、生境等功能进行阐述。对于孤立湿地的保护,国外已有明确的法律和相应的措施,而我国在此方面需要进一步完善。通过对孤立湿地的定义、类型、特征、功能和保护进行了综述,并对未来我国孤立湿地研究的热点和方向进行了初步展望。     

The spatial distribution of soil organic carbon in tidal wetland soils of the continental United States

Tidal wetlands contain large reservoirs of carbon in their soils and can sequester carbon dioxide (CO₂) at a greater rate per unit area than nearly any other ecosystem. The spatial distribution of this carbon influences climate and wetland policy. To assist with international accords such as the Paris Climate Agreement, national‐level assessments such as the United States (U.S.) National Greenhouse Gas Inventory, and regional, state, local, and project‐level evaluation of CO₂ sequestration credits, we developed a geodatabase (CoBluCarb) and high‐resolution maps of soil organic carbon (SOC) distribution by linking National Wetlands Inventory data with the U.S. Soil Survey Geographic Database. For over 600,000 wetlands, the total carbon stock and organic carbon density was calculated at 5‐cm vertical resolution from 0 to 300 cm of depth. Across the continental United States, there are 1,153–1,359 Tg of SOC in the upper 0–100 cm of soils across a total of 24 945.9 km² of tidal wetland area, twice as much carbon as the most recent national estimate. Approximately 75% of this carbon was found in estuarine emergent wetlands with freshwater tidal wetlands holding about 19%. The greatest pool of SOC was found within the Atchafalaya/Vermilion Bay complex in Louisiana, containing about 10% of the U.S. total. The average density across all tidal wetlands was 0.071 g cm^?3 across 0–15 cm, 0.055 g cm^?3 across 0–100 cm, and 0.040 g cm^?3 at the 100 cm depth. There is inherent variability between and within individual wetlands; however, we conclude that it is possible to use standardized values at a range of 0–100 cm of the soil profile, to provide first‐order quantification and to evaluate future changes in carbon stocks in response to environmental perturbations. This Tier 2‐oriented carbon stock assessment provides a scientific method that can be copied by other nations in support of international requirements.