Reducing CO2 accumulation and its phytotoxicity to lettuce with absorbent in hermetic storage as a simulation of long-term fumigation

Long-term fumigation with pure phosphine at low-temperature injures lettuce and the injury is likely caused by a potential accumulation of CO₂. In this study, iceberg and romaine lettuce were stored hermetically in fumigation chambers with and without absorbents for CO₂ and ethylene for 3 days at 2 ºC as a simulation of long-term fumigation to determine the effects of the absorbents on accumulations of CO₂ and ethylene and postharvest quality of lettuce. In the absence of absorbents, CO₂ level increased from 0.08% at the start to 3.36% at the end of the 3-day hermetic storage. No accumulation of ethylene was detected. Hermetic storage resulted in significant CO₂ injuries to both iceberg and romaine lettuce and quality degradation as compared with the controls at 14 days after treatment. In the storage with absorbents, the CO₂ level remained low throughout the storage and ethylene was undetectable, and the CO₂ injury level was the same or lower than the control. Lettuce quality scores were either the same or better than lettuce in the control. Our findings suggest that the accumulation of CO₂ alone caused injuries associated with long-term phosphine fumigation and CO₂ absorbent has the potential to prevent such injuries.     

Ultralow oxygen treatment for control of western flower thrips,Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), on harvested table grapes

Exported organic table grapes from the U.S. are currently fumigated with methyl bromide to control quarantined pests such as western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande). An alternative treatment which is compatible with organic products is needed. In this study, controlled atmosphere with ultralow oxygen (ULO) treatment was studied to control thrips on harvested table grapes. ULO treatments with < 0.01 ppm oxygen at 3.3 °C for 1, 2, and 3 days were tested for thrips control. The 3-day ULO treatment achieved complete control of thrips. The treatment was also applied to Thompson seedless and Flame seedless grape varieties and grape quality was evaluated two weeks after the treatment. The ULO treatment had no negative impact on the visual quality of grapes. There were no significant differences in overall grape quality or premium quality berries between the ULO treatment and the control. The results indicated that the ULO treatment was effective and safe to control western flower thrips on table grapes and had a potential for commercial use.     

Methyl benzoate fumigation for control of post-harvest pests and its effects on apple quality

Methyl benzoate is a newly discovered natural insecticide. In this study, we evaluated methyl benzoate as a potential fumigant for controlling four pests including western flower thrips (WFT), Frankliniella occidentalis, lettuce aphid, Nasonovia ribisnigri, rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae, and bulb mites, Rhizoglyphus spp., at different temperatures and effects on post-harvest quality of apples. Methyl benzoate fumigations were effective against all four pests. Complete control of WFT and lettuce aphid was both achieved in 8, 16 and 24 hr at 25, 13 and 2°C, respectively. For rice weevil, complete control was achieved in 16 and 72 hr with and without rice at 25°C, respectively. Complete control of bulb mites was achieved in 64 hr at 25°C on peanut. In addition, a 24 hr methyl benzoate fumigation at 2°C had complete control of WFT but had no negative impact on visual quality of apples of three varieties 4 weeks after fumigation. These results suggest that methyl benzoate fumigation has potential to be an alternative treatment to methyl bromide fumigation, which has been phased out, for post-harvest pest control for stored products and may also have potential to control other pests on fresh products.     

Oxygenated phosphine fumigation for control of Nasonovia ribisnigri (Homoptera: Aphididae) on harvested lettuce

Low temperature regular phosphine fumigations under the normal oxygen level and oxygenated phosphine fumigations under superatmospheric oxygen levels were compared for efficacy against the aphid, Nasonovia ribisnigri (Mosley), and effects on postharvest quality of romaine and head lettuce. Low temperature regular phosphine fumigation was effective against the aphid. However, a 3 d treatment with high phosphine concentrations of > or = 2,000 ppm was needed for complete control of the aphid. Oxygen greatly increased phosphine toxicity and significantly reduced both treatment time and phosphine concentration for control of N. ribisnigri. At 1,000 ppm phosphine, 72 h regular fumigations at 6 degrees C did not achieve 100% mortality of the aphid. The 1,000 ppm phosphine fumigation under 60% O2 killed all aphids in 30 h. Both a 72 h regular fumigation with 2,200 ppm phosphine and a 48 h oxygenated fumigation with 1,000 ppm phosphine under 60% O2 were tested on romaine and head lettuce at 3 degrees C. Both treatments achieved complete control of N. ribisnigri. However, the 72 h regular fumigation resulted in significantly higher percentages of lettuce with injuries and significantly lower lettuce internal quality scores than the 48 h oxygenated phosphine fumigation. Although the oxygenated phosphine fumigation also caused injuries to some treated lettuce, lettuce quality remained very good and the treatment is not expected to have a significant impact on marketability of the lettuce. This study demonstrated that oxygenated phosphine fumigation was more effective and less phytotoxic for controlling N. ribisnigri on harvested lettuce than regular phosphine fumigation and is promising for practical use.     

Oxygen enhances phosphine toxicity for postharvest pest control

Phosphine fumigations under superatmospheric oxygen levels (oxygenated phosphine fumigations) were significantly more effective than the fumigations under the normal 20.9% atmospheric oxygen level against western flower thrips [Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande)] adults and larvae, leafminer Liriomyza langei Frick pupae, grape mealybug [Pseudococcus maritimus (Ehrhorn)] eggs, and Indianmeal moth [Plodia interpunctella (Hübner)] eggs and pupae. In 5-h fumigations with 1,000 ppm phosphine at 5 degrees C, mortalities of western flower thrips increased significantly from 79.5 to 97.7% when oxygen was increased from 20.9 to 40% and reached 99.3% under 80% O2. Survivorships of leafminer pupae decreased significantly from 71.2% under 20.9% O2 to 16.2% under 40% O2 and reached 1.1% under 80% O2 in 24-h fumigations with 500 ppm phosphine at 5 degrees C. Complete control of leafminer pupae was achieved in 24-h fumigations with 1,000 ppm phosphine at 5 degrees C under 60% O2 or higher. Survivorships of grape mealybug eggs also decreased significantly in 48-h fumigations with 1,000 ppm phosphine at 2 degrees C under 60% O2 compared with the fumigations under 20.9% O2. Indian meal moth egg survivorships decreased significantly from 17.4 to 0.5% in responses to an oxygen level increase from 20.9 to 40% in 48-h fumigations with 1,000 ppm phosphine at 10 degrees C and reached 0.2% in fumigations under 80% O2. When the oxygen level was reduced from 20.9 to 15 and 10% in fumigations, survivorships of Indianmeal moth eggs increased significantly from 17.4 to 32.9 and 39.9%, respectively. Increased O2 levels also resulted in significantly lower survival rates of Indianmeal moth pupae in response to 24-h fumigations with 500 and 1,000 ppm phosphine at 10 degrees C and a complete control was achieved in the 1,000 ppm phosphine fumigations under 60% O2. Oxygenated phosphine fumigations have marked potential to improve insecticidal efficacy. Advantages and limitations of oxygenated phosphine fumigation are discussed.     

Temperature-dependent development models of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) Q biotype on three host plants

Temperature-dependent development of the sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), Q biotype was examined on three host plants (bell pepper, oriental melon, and eggplant) at nine temperatures (15, 17.5, 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5, 30, 32.5, and 35 °C). Egg development time (least squares [LS]-mean ± LS-standard error [SE]) varied from 31.78 ± 0.29 days at 15 °C to 4.93 ± 0.25 days at 32.5 °C on bell pepper, from 21.27 ± 0.20 days at 17.5 °C to 4.02 ± 0.23 days at 32.5 °C on oriental melon, and from 26.92 ± 0.19 days at 15 °C to 5.14 ± 0.18 days at 30 °C on eggplant. Nymph development time (LS-mean ± LS-SE) varied from 76.54 ± 0.96 days at 15 °C to 12.96 ± 0.68 days at 27.5 °C on bell pepper, from 48.78 ± 0.38 days at 17.5 °C to 11.32 ± 0.38 days at 32.5 °C on oriental melon, and from 73.08 ± 1.23 days at 15 °C to 11.89 ± 0.70 days at 27.5 °C on eggplant. A non-linear relationship between developmental rate and temperature was described by the Taylor model, and developmental variation was described by the two-parameter Weibull function.     

Temperature-dependent development of Lista haraldusalis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) on Platycarya strobilacea

The effect of constant temperatures on development and survival of Lista haraldusalis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), a newly reported insect species used to produce insect tea in Guizhou province (China), was studied in laboratory conditions at seven temperatures (19 °C, 22 °C, 25 °C, 28 °C, 31 °C, 34 °C, and 37 °C) on Platycarya strobilacea. Increasing the temperature from 19 °C to 31 °C led to a significant decrease in the developmental time from egg to adult emergence, and then the total developmental time increased at 34 °C. Egg incubation was the stage where L. haraldusalis experienced the highest mortality at all temperatures. The survival of L. haraldusalis was significantly higher at 25 °C and 28 °C, whereas none of the eggs hatched at 37 °C. Common and Ikemoto linear models were used to describe the relationship between the temperature and the developmental rate for each immature stage of L. haraldusalis. The estimated values of the lower temperature threshold and thermal constant of the total immature stages using Common and Ikemoto linear models were 11.34 °C and 11.20 °C, and 939.85 and 950.41 degree-days, respectively. Seven nonlinear models were used to fit the experimental data to estimate the developmental rate of L. haraldusalis. Based on the biological significance for model evaluation, Ikemoto linear, Logan-6, and SSI were the best models that fitted each immature stage of L. haraldusalis and they were used to estimate the temperature thresholds. These thermal requirements and temperature thresholds are crucial for facilitating the development of factory-based mass rearing of L. haraldusalis.     

Flower model traps reduced thrips infestations on a pepper crop in field

A flower model trap developed by modifying an artificial yellow chrysanthemum flower was more attractive to flower thrips than commercial yellow sticky traps. Installation of these flower model traps (20 traps per 50 m² plot) was reported to reduce seasonal populations of Frankliniella intonsa (Trybom) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on strawberry flowers in greenhouses. In this study, we sought to determine if the installation of such flower model traps would reduce thrips populations in a pepper field. The traps were installed at the bottom of the plant canopy at varying densities (0, 5, 10, and 20 traps) in 20 plots (each 3 × 5 m²) using a completely randomized design. Thrips populations on pepper flowers were sampled from 1 to 29 July in 2009. All thrips sampled on the flowers were identified as F. intonsa. A significant effect of treatment and sampling date was found from repeated-measure analysis of variance. The highest density (20 traps per 15 m²) of traps significantly reduced the female and male F. intonsa population compared to the control by 61 and 49%, respectively. However, no difference in immature thrips numbers was found among the treatments. These results indicate that this flower model trap can be a useful tool for the management of flower thrips on field-grown peppers.     

Temperature-dependent functional response of Scolothrips longicornis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) preying on Tetranychus urticae

Environmental variables like temperature are important factors that affect the efficiency of biological control agents in greenhouse crops. This study examined the effect of temperature on the functional response of an acarophagous thrips Scolothrips longicornis Priesner to different densities of two spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch in laboratory conditions. Five constant temperatures (15, 20, 26, 30, and 35 °C) and seven prey densities (2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128) were used in the experiments. At each temperature, 2 to 128 adult of T. urticaue were exposed to a female S. longicornis for a 24 h period. The results indicated that the predatory thrips exhibited type II functional response to different densities of T. urticae at all examined temperatures. Temperature had significant effect on the predation capacity of the adult thrips over the range of 15–35 °C. Instantaneous attack rate (a) of the predator increased linearly with increasing temperature from 15 to 35 °C. At 35 °C, the highest instantaneous attack rate was estimated to be 0.0579 day^? 1 using the Holling model and 0.1480 day^? 1 using Rogers model. The estimated value of handling time (T_h) using both Holling and Rogers models decreased linearly with increasing temperature from 15 to 35 °C. Scolothrips longicornis achieved higher predation at higher temperature (16.1 preys/day at 35 °C). This observation suggested that S. longicornis may be more effective for biological control of two spotted spider mite in warmer conditions.     

Behavioral thermoregulation and critical thermal limits of giant keyhole limpet Megathura crenulata (Sowerby 1825) (Mollusca; Vetigastropoda)

The thermoregulatory behavior of the giant keyhole limpet Megathura crenulata was determined in a horizontal thermal gradient during the day at 18.9 °C and 18.3 °C for the night. The final preferendum determined for giant keyhole limpets was of 18.6±1.2 °C.Limpets' displacement velocity was 10.0±3.9 cm h⁻¹ during the light phase and 8.4±1.6 cm h⁻¹ during the dark phase. The thermotolerance (measured as CTMax at 50%) was determined in a keyhole limpet in three acclimation temperatures 17, 20, and 23 °C. Limpets were subjected to water increasing temperatures at a rate of 1 °C every 30 min, until they detached from the substrate. The critical thermal maximum at 50% was 27.2, 27.9 and 28.3 °C respectively.     

Biology and thermal requirements of Chrysoperla genanigra (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) reared on Sitotroga cerealella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) eggs

Chrysoperla genanigra Freitas is a common green lacewing associated with melon pests in the Northeastern Brazil. All life stages of this recently described species were studied under a range of constant temperature conditions (17, 21, 25, 29, 33, 35 and 37 °C), a photoperiod of 12 h:12 h (L:D) and 70 ± 10% relative humidity. Adults of C. genanigra were fed on a diet consisting of a 1:1 (v/v) mixture of brewer’s yeast and honey, while larvae were provided with eggs of Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) ad libitum. The duration of preimaginal development of the species was inversely proportional to temperature and ranged from approximately 63 days at 17 °C to 15 days at 35 °C. The percentage of adult emergence varied from 6.7% at 17 °C to 76.7% at 25 °C, although no larvae were able to complete development at 37 °C. The lower thermal threshold for total preimaginal development was approximately 10.8 °C and the thermal requirement was 336.7 degree-days. Egg production, along with the longevity of both males and females, were significantly affected by temperature. It is concluded that the best temperature for rearing C. genanigra is 25 °C, with the lowest preimaginal mortality and the highest egg production (992.7 eggs/female).     

Cold storage of the egg parasitoids Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) and Telenomus podisi Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae)

Adults of Trissolcus basalis and Telenomus podisi were stored either at 15 or 18 °C after their immature development had been completed at 18 or 25 °C. Longevity of the parasitoids in the storage temperatures was evaluated, as well as fecundity and longevity following their return to 25 °C after different periods in reproductive diapause. Temperature during immature development influenced female longevity and highest mean longevity was obtained for females that developed to the adult stage at 25 °C and then were stored at 15 °C (ca. 13 months for T. basalis and 10 months for Te. podisi). For adults of T. basalis that developed at 25 °C, storage periods of 120 or 180 days at 15 or 18 °C did not affect fecundity. The fecundity of T. basalis females that developed at 18 °C and were stored for 120 days at 15 or 18 °C was not affected; however, after remaining for 180 days, fecundity was reduced in ca. 30 and 50%, respectively. Storage of Te. podisi adults at 15 or 18 °C significantly reduced fecundity. It is concluded that adults of T. basalis can be stored in the adult stage at 15 or 18 °C between two soybean crop seasons for mass production purposes, aiming the biological control of stink bugs.     

Body temperature,thermoregulatory behaviour and pelt characteristics of three colour morphs of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis)

Using intra-abdominal miniature data loggers, we measured core body temperature in female springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) of three colour morphs (black, normal and white), free-living in the Karoo, South Africa, for one year. During winter, white springbok displayed lower daily minimum body temperatures (37.4 ± 0.5 °C), than both black (38.1 ± 0.3 °C) and normal (38.0 ± 0.6 °C) springbok. During spring, black springbok displayed higher daily maximum body temperatures (40.7 ± 0.1 °C) than both white (40.2 ± 0.2 °C) and normal (40.2 ± 0.2 °C) springbok. These high maximum body temperatures were associated with larger daily amplitudes of nychthemeral rhythm of body temperature (2.0 ± 0.2 °C), than that of white (1.6 ± 0.1 °C) and normal (1.7 ± 0.2 °C) springbok. Biophysical properties of sample springbok pelts were consistent with these patterns, as the black springbok pelt showed lower reflectance in the visible spectral range, and higher heat load from simulated solar radiation, than did the pelts of the other two springbok. Black springbok had lower diurnal activity in winter, consistent with them having to forage less because their metabolic cost of homeothermy was lower, but were disadvantaged in hot periods. White springbok, by contrast, were more protected from solar heat load, but potentially less able to meet the energy cost of homeothermy in winter. Thus energy considerations may underlie the rarity of the springbok colour morphs.     

Pollination ecology of Acacia gerrardii Benth. (Fabaceae: Mimosoideae) under extremely hot-dry conditions

Talh trees (Acacia gerrardii Benth.) are acacias that are native to the arid and semiarid Africa and west Asia. We investigated the flowering biology, pod set and flower visitors of Talh and discussed the role of these visitors in pollen transfer. The Talh trees blossomed laterally on the nodes of one-year-old twigs. Each node produced 21 flower buds seasonally. Each flower bud opened to a flower head (FH) of 60 florets. The bagged FHs podded significantly (p ⩽ 0.05) less than did the unbagged FHs. The FHs were visited by 31 insect species (25 genera, 16 families and 5 orders). The major taxa were honeybees, megachilids, butterflies, ants, beetles and thrips. Each of honeybees, megachilids and beetles showed a significant (p ⩽ 0.05) hourly pattern, while each of butterflies, ants and thrips had no hourly pattern (p > 0.05). Furthermore, some birds and mammals touched the Talh FHs. Talh trees evolved a mass flowering behavior to face pre- and post-flowering obstacles. Megachilids seemed to play the major effort of zoophily because of their relatively high numbers of individuals and species and their effective movement behavior on the FH surface. Nevertheless, honeybees and other insects and vertebrate taxa also contributed to the pollen transfer. These results greatly contribute to our understanding of the pollination ecology of acacias, especially Arabian acacias.     

Unusual change in activity pattern at cool temperature in a reptile (Sphenodon punctatus)

Animals that can be active both during day and night offer unique opportunities to identify factors that influence activity pattern. By experimental manipulations of temperatures under constant photoperiod, we aimed to determine if emergence, activity and thermoregulatory behaviour of juvenile tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) varied at different temperatures (20 °C, 12 °C and 5 °C). To help clarify its activity pattern, we compared tuatara with two lizard species endemic of the South Island of New Zealand for which activity pattern is known and clearly defined: the nocturnal common gecko Woodworthia “Otago/Southland” and the diurnal McCann׳s skink Oligosoma maccanni. Tuatara showed similar responses to both species of lizards. Similar to the diurnal skinks, tuatara emerged quickly at 20 °C and 12 °C while nocturnal geckos took more time to emerge. Like nocturnal geckos, tuatara continued to be active at 5 °C, but only during the day. Interestingly, tuatara shifted from diurno-nocturnal activity at 20 °C and 12 °C to being strictly diurnal at 5 °C. We suggest that this temperature-dependent strategy maximises their survival during cold periods.     

Temperature modulates hepatic carbohydrate metabolic enzyme activity and gene expression in juvenile GIFT tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed a carbohydrate-enriched diet

The effects of rearing temperature on hepatic glucokinase (GK), glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) and Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) activity and gene expression were studied in GIFT (genetically improved farmed tilapia) tilapia fed a high carbohydrate diet containing 28% crude protein, 5% crude lipid and 40% wheat starch. Triplicate groups of fish (11.28 g initial body weight) were fed the diet for 45 days at 22 °C, 28 °C or 34 °C. At the end of the trial, final body weight of juvenile at 28 °C (59.12 g) was higher than that of the fish reared at 22 °C (27.13 g) and 34 °C (43.17 g). Feed intake, feed efficiency and protein efficiency ratio were also better at 28 °C. Liver glycogen levels were higher at 28 °C, while plasma glucose levels were higher in the 22 °C group. Significant (P<0.05) effects of water temperature on enzymes activities and gene expression were observed. Hepatic GK activity and mRNA level were higher at 28 °C than at 34 °C. Higher G6Pase and G6PD activity and gene expression were observed at 22 °C. Overall, the data show that juveniles reared at 28 °C exhibited enhanced liver glycolytic capacity. In contrast, hepatic gluconeogenesis and lipogenesis were increased by low temperature (22 °C).     

Wheat quality related differential expressions of albumins and globulins revealed by two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis (2-D DIGE)

Comparative proteomics analysis offers a new approach to identify differential proteins among different wheat genotypes and developmental stages. In this study, the non-prolamin expression profiles during grain development of two common or bread wheat cultivars (Triticum aestivum L.), Jing 411 and Sunstate, with different quality properties were analyzed using two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis (2-D DIGE). Five grain developmental stages during the post-anthesis period were sampled corresponding to the cumulative averages of daily temperatures (°C: 156 °C, 250 °C, 354 °C, 447 °C and 749.5 °C). More than 400 differential protein spots detected at one or more of the developmental stages of the two cultivars were monitored, among which 230 proteins were identified by MS. Of the identified proteins, more than 85% were enzymes possessing different physiological functions. A total of 36 differential proteins were characterized between the two varieties, which are likely to be related to wheat quality attributes. About one quarter of the proteins identified expressed in multiple spots with different pIs and molecular masses, implying certain post-translational modifications (PTMs) of proteins such as phosphorylations and glycosylations. The results provide new insights into biochemical mechanisms for grain development and quality.     

Effects of heat stress on some reproductive parameters of male cavie (Cavia porcellus) and mitigation strategies using guava (Psidium guajava) leaves essential oil

Climate changes, particularly the increase of temperature are among the main causes behind the decline of fertility in humans as well as animals. In this study, the effects of heat stress on some reproductive parameters of male cavies and mitigation strategies using guava leaves essential oil (GLEO) were studied. For this purpose, 40 male cavies aged 2.5–3 months and weighing between 348 and 446 g were divided into 4 groups of 10 animals each and subjected to the following temperatures: Ambient temperature (20–25 °C) for the control group, 35 °C for group 1, 45 °C for group 2 and 45 °C+100 µl GLEO/kg body weight, administered by gavage to animals for group 3. Exposure time of heat was 7 h per day for 60 days. Results reveal that the relative weights of testes, epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicles were hardly affected by the temperature levels considered (P>0.05). The mass and individual sperm motility was significantly lower (P<0.05) in cavies exposed to the temperature of 35 and 45 °C as compared with those which received GLEO and controls. The percentages of abnormal sperm and altered sperm DNA were higher in animals exposed to temperature of 35 and 45 °C as compared with the controls. The activity of superoxide dismutase significantly increased (P<0.05) in animals exposed to temperature of 45 °C and in those of 45 °C and orally treated with GLEO, compared with cavies exposed to temperature of 45 °C without receiving GLEO. The level of malondialdehyde was significantly increased (P<0.05) in animals exposed to temperature of 35 and 45 °C, whereas the level of nitric oxide was significantly lower (P<0.05) in exposed animals as compared with controls. It was concluded that the exposure of male cavies at 35 and 45 °C for 60 days induce heat stress that causes deterioration of sperm characteristics. These effects that can be mitigated by the administration of guava leaves essential oil.     

Effects of different temperatures on the life history of Evania appendigaster L. (Hymenoptera: Evaniidae), a solitary oothecal parasitoid of Periplaneta americana L. (Dictyoptera: Blattidae)

The influence of temperatures on the life parameters of the solitary oothecal parasitoid Evania appendigaster, was investigated in the laboratory. Parasitized oothecae of Periplaneta americana were left to develop under seven constant temperatures: 15, 17, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 °C. At the end, we found that: (i) E. appendigaster was able to complete development within the temperature range of 17–34 °C; (ii) mean adult longevity decreased as temperature increased, with the temperature of 40 °C being fatal in a matter of hours; (iii) males lived longer than females between 15 and 30 °C; (iv) adult emergence rate was the highest at 25 °C, and (v) no wasps emerged at 15 or 40 °C. Non-emerged oothecae contained either unhatched eggs or dead larvae. We determined the theoretical lower developmental threshold and thermal constant for the complete development as 12.9 °C and 584.8 day-degrees for males, and 13.1 °C and 588.2 day-degrees for females, respectively. A good balance between faster development, maximum adult longevity and good egg viability was obtained between 25–30 °C, and that would be the best temperature range for rearing E. appendigaster.