Purification and properties of cyclostome carbonic anhydrase from erythrocytes of hagfish

1. Carbonic anhydrase (carbonate hydro-lyase, EC 4.2.1.1) has been purified from erythrocytes of hagfish (Myxine glutinosa). A single form with low specific CO2 hydration activity was isolated. The purified carbonic anhydrase appeared homogeneous judging from polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and gel filtration experiments. The protein has a molecular weight of about 29 000, corresponding to about 260 amino acid residues. This molecular weight is in accordance with other vertebrate carbonic anhydrases with the exception of the elasmobranch enzymes, which have Mr 36 000--39 000. 2. The molecular weight obtained for hagfish carbonic anhydrase indicates that a carbonic anhydrase with Mr approx. 29 000 is the ancestral type of the vertebrate enzyme rather than, as in sharks, a heavier carbonic anhydrase molecule. 3. The circular dichroism spectrum may indicate a somewhat different structural arrangement of aromatic amino acid residues in this enzyme than in the mammalian carbonic anhydrases. 4. The enzyme is strongly inhibited by acetazolamide and also to a lesser extent by monovalent anions. 5. Zn2+, which is essential for activity, appears, contrary to other characterized carbonic anhydrases, less strongly bound in the active site of the enzyme.     

A plant-type (beta-class) carbonic anhydrase in the thermophilic methanoarchaeon Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum.

Carbonic anhydrase, a zinc enzyme catalyzing the interconversion of carbon dioxide and bicarbonate, is nearly ubiquitous in the tissues of highly evolved eukaryotes. Here we report on the first known plant-type (beta-class) carbonic anhydrase in the archaea. The Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum DeltaH cab gene was hyperexpressed in Escherichia coli, and the heterologously produced protein was purified 13-fold to apparent homogeneity. The enzyme, designated Cab, is thermostable at temperatures up to 75 degrees C. No esterase activity was detected with p-phenylacetate as the substrate. The enzyme is an apparent tetramer containing approximately one zinc per subunit, as determined by plasma emission spectroscopy. Cab has a CO(2) hydration activity with a k(cat) of 1.7 x 10(4) s(-1) and K(m) for CO(2) of 2.9 mM at pH 8.5 and 25 degrees C. Western blot analysis indicates that Cab (beta class) is expressed in M. thermoautotrophicum; moreover, a protein cross-reacting to antiserum raised against the gamma carbonic anhydrase from Methanosarcina thermophila was detected. These results show that beta-class carbonic anhydrases extend not only into the Archaea domain but also into the thermophilic prokaryotes.     

Competitive Inhibitory Effects of Acetazolamide upon Interactions with Bovine Carbonic Anhydrase II

Sulfonamide drugs mediate their main therapeutic effects through modulation of the activity of membrane and cytosolic carbonic anhydrases. How interactions of sulfonamide drugs impact structural properties and activity of carbonic anhydrases requires further study. Here the effect of acetazolamide on the structure and function of bovine carbonic anhydrase II (cytosolic form of the enzyme) was evaluated. The Far-UV CD studies indicated that carbonic anhydrase, for the most part, retains its secondary structure in the presence of acetazolamide. Fluorescence measurements using iodide ions and ANS, along with ASA calculations, revealed that in the presence of acetazolamide minimal conformational changes occurred in the carbonic anhydrase structure. These structural changes, which may involve spatial reorientation of Trp 4 and Trp 190 or some other related aminoacyl residues near the active site, considerably reduced the catalytic activity of the enzyme while its thermal stability was slightly increased. Our binding results indicated that binding of acetazolamide to the protein could occur with a 1:1 ratio, one mole of acetazolamide per one mole of the protein. However, the obtained kinetic results supported the existence of two acetazolamide binding sites on the protein structure. The occupation of each of these binding sites by acetazolamide completely inactivates the enzyme. Advanced analysis of the kinetic results revealed that there are two substrate (p-NPA) binding sites whose simultaneous occupation is required for full enzyme activity. Thus, these studies suggest that the two isoforms of CA II should exist in the medium, each of which contains one substrate binding site (catalytic site) and one acetazolamide binding site. The acetazolamide binding site is equivalent to the catalytic site, thus, inhibiting enzyme activity by a competitive mechanism.     

Catalytic enhancement of human carbonic anhydrase III by replacement of phenylalanine-198 with leucine

Carbonic anhydrase III, a cytosolic enzyme found predominantly in skeletal muscle, has a turnover rate for CO2 hydration 500-fold lower and a KI for inhibition by acetazolamide 700-fold higher (at pH 7.2) than those of red cell carbonic anhydrase II. Mutants of human carbonic anhydrase III were made by replacing three residues near the active site with amino acids known to be at the corresponding positions in isozyme II (Lys-64----His, Arg-67----Asn, and Phe-198----Leu). Catalytic properties were measured by stopped-flow spectrophotometry and 18O exchange between CO2 and water using mass spectrometry. The triple mutant of isozyme III had a turnover rate for CO2 hydration 500-fold higher than wild-type carbonic anhydrase III. The binding constants, KI, for sulfonamide inhibitors of the mutants containing Leu-198 were comparable to those of carbonic anhydrase II. The mutations at residues 64, 67, and 198 were catalytically independent; the lowered energy barrier for the triple mutant was the sum of the energy changes for each of the single mutants. Moreover, the triple mutant of isozyme III catalyzed the hydrolysis of 4-nitrophenyl acetate with a specific activity and pH dependence similar to those of isozyme II. Phe-198 is thus a major contributor to the low CO2 hydration activity, the weak binding of acetazolamide, and the low pKa of the zinc-bound water in carbonic anhydrase III. Intramolecular proton transfer involving His-64 was necessary for maximal turnover.     

Equilibrium of CO2 reactions in the pulmonary capillary

Steady-state CO2 excretion was measured in isolated blood-free rabbit lungs perfused with bicarbonate solutions. CO2 in the expired ventilation was either present initially in the perfusate as dissolved CO2 or produced from bicarbonate during pulmonary capillary transit. The two components were separated by measurement of simultaneous acetylene excretion. Bovine carbonic anhydrase and acetazolamide were sequentially added to the perfusate to determine the effects of maximal enzyme catalysis and inhibition of native lung carbonic anhydrase on CO2 production. Control CO2 production was significantly greater than that observed during inhibition of native lung carbonic anhydrase, confirming previous observations that bicarbonate has access to the tissue enzyme. Addition of excess carbonic anhydrase increased CO2 production by a statistically, but not physiologically, significant amount. These data demonstrate that CO2 reactions outside the erythrocyte attain 97% completion during pulmonary capillary transit. Under control and catalyzed conditions, alveolar and venous CO2 tens ions and pH were essentially identical to equilibrium values determined by in vitro tonometry.     

Structural and kinetic characterization of an archaeal beta-class carbonic anhydrase

The beta-class carbonic anhydrase from the archaeon Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum (Cab) was structurally and kinetically characterized. Analytical ultracentrifugation experiments show that Cab is a tetramer. Circular dichroism studies of Cab and the Spinacia oleracea (spinach) beta-class carbonic anhydrase indicate that the secondary structure of the beta-class enzymes is predominantly alpha-helical, unlike that of the alpha- or gamma-class enzymes. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure results indicate the active zinc site of Cab is coordinated by two sulfur and two O/N ligands, with the possibility that one of the O/N ligands is derived from histidine and the other from water. Both the steady-state parameters k(cat) and k(cat)/K(m) for CO(2) hydration are pH dependent. The steady-state parameter k(cat) is buffer-dependent in a saturable manner at both pH 8.5 and 6.5, and the analysis suggested a ping-pong mechanism in which buffer is the second substrate. At saturating buffer conditions and pH 8.5, k(cat) is 2.1-fold higher in H(2)O than in D(2)O, consistent with an intramolecular proton transfer step being rate contributing. The steady-state parameter k(cat)/K(m) is not dependent on buffer, and no solvent hydrogen isotope effect was observed. The results suggest a zinc hydroxide mechanism for Cab. The overall results indicate that prokaryotic beta-class carbonic anhydrases have fundamental characteristics similar to the eukaryotic beta-class enzymes and firmly establish that the alpha-, beta-, and gamma-classes are convergently evolved enzymes that, although structurally distinct, are functionally equivalent.     

Entry and exit pathways of CO2 in rat liver mitochondria respiring in a bicarbonate buffer system

The dynamics and pathways of CO2 movements across the membranes of mitochondria respiring in vitro in a CO2/HCO-3 buffer at concentrations close to that in intact rat tissues were continuously monitored with a gas-permeable CO2-sensitive electrode. O2 uptake and pH changes were monitored simultaneously. Factors affecting CO2 entry were examined under conditions in which CO2 uptake was coupled to electrophoretic influx of K+ (in the presence of valinomycin) or Ca2+. The role of mitochondrial carbonic anhydrase (EC 4.2.1.1) in CO2 entry was evaluated by comparison of CO2 uptake by rat liver mitochondria, which possess carbonic anhydrase, versus rat heart mitochondria, which lack carbonic anhydrase. Such studies showed that matrix carbonic anhydrase activity is essential for rapid net uptake of CO2 with K+ or Ca2+. Studies with acetazolamide (Diamox), a potent inhibitor of carbonic anhydrase, confirmed the requirement of matrix carbonic anhydrase for net CO2 uptake. It was shown that at pH 7.2 the major species leaving respiring mitochondria is dissolved CO2, rather than HCO-3 or H2CO3 suggested by earlier reports. Efflux of endogenous CO2/HCO-3 is significantly inhibited by inhibitors of the dicarboxylate and tricarboxylate transport systems of the rat liver inner membrane. The possibility that these anion carriers mediate outward transport of HCO-3 is discussed.     

Inhibition of the hydration of CO2 catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase III from cat muscle

Using stopped flow methods, we have measured the steady state rate constants and the inhibition by N3- and I- of the hydration of CO2 catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase III from cat muscle. Also, using fluorescence quenching of the enzyme at 330 nm, we have measured the binding of the sulfonamide chlorzolamide to cat carbonic anhydrase III. Inhibition by the anions was uncompetitive at pH 6.0 and was mixed at higher values of pH. The inhibition constant of azide was independent of pH between 6.0 and 7.5 with a value of KIintercept = 2 X 10(-5) M; the binding constant of chlorzolamide to cat carbonic anhydrase III was also independent of pH in the range of 6.0 to 7.5 with a value Kdiss = 2 X 10(-6) M. Both of these values increased as pH increased above 8. There was a competition between chlorzolamide and the anions N-3 and OCN- for binding sites on cat carbonic anhydrase III. The pH profiles for the kinetic constants and the uncompetitive inhibition at pH 6.0 can be explained by an activity-controlling group in cat carbonic anhydrase III with a pKa less than 6. Moreover, the data suggest that like isozyme II, cat isozyme III is limited in rate by a step occurring outside the actual interconversion of CO2 and HCO3- and involving a change in bonding to hydrogen exchangeable with solvent water.     

Proton transfer within the active-site cavity of carbonic anhydrase III

The maximal turnover rate of CO2 hydration catalyzed by the carbonic anhydrases is limited by proton transfer steps from the zinc-bound water to solution, steps that regenerate the catalytically active zinc-bound hydroxide. Catalysis of CO2 hydration by wild-type human carbonic anhydrase III (HCA III) (k(cat) = 2 ms (-1)) is the least efficient among the carbonic anhydrases in its class, in part because it lacks an efficient proton shuttle residue. We have used site-directed mutagenesis to test positions within the active-site cavity of HCA III for their ability to carry out proton transfer by replacing various residues with histidine. Catalysis by wild-type HCA III and these six variants was determined from the initial velocity of hydration of CO2 measured by stopped-flow spectrophotometry and from the exchange of 18O between CO2 and H2O at chemical equilibrium by mass spectrometry. The results show that histidine at three positions (Lys64His, Arg67His and Phe131His) have the capacity to transfer protons during catalysis, enhancing maximal velocity of CO2 hydration and 18O exchange from 4- to 15-fold compared with wild-type HCA III. Histidine residues at the other three positions (Trp5His, Tyr7His, Phe20His) showed no firm evidence for proton transfer. These results are discussed in terms of the stereochemistry of the active-site cavity and possible proton transfer pathways.     

A closer look at the active site of gamma-class carbonic anhydrases: high-resolution crystallographic studies of the carbonic anhydrase from Methanosarcina thermophila

The prototype of the gamma-class of carbonic anhydrase has been characterized from the methanogenic archaeon Methanosarcina thermophila. Previously reported kinetic studies of the gamma-class carbonic anhydrase are consistent with this enzyme having a reaction mechanism similar to that of the mammalian alpha-class carbonic anhydrase. However, the overall folds of these two enzymes are dissimilar, and apart from the zinc-coordinating histidines, the active site residues bear little resemblance to one another. The crystal structures of zinc-containing and cobalt-substituted gamma-class carbonic anhydrases from M. thermophila are reported here between 1.46 and 1.95 A resolution in the unbound form and cocrystallized with either SO(4)(2)(-) or HCO(3)(-). Relative to the tetrahedral coordination geometry seen at the active site in the alpha-class of carbonic anhydrases, the active site of the gamma-class enzyme contains additional metal-bound water ligands, so the overall coordination geometry is trigonal bipyramidal for the zinc-containing enzyme and octahedral for the cobalt-substituted enzyme. Ligands bound to the active site all make contacts with the side chain of Glu 62 in manners that suggest the side chain is likely protonated. In the uncomplexed zinc-containing enzyme, the side chains of Glu 62 and Glu 84 appear to share a proton; additionally, Glu 84 exhibits multiple conformations. This suggests that Glu 84 may act as a proton shuttle, which is an important aspect of the reaction mechanism of alpha-class carbonic anhydrases. A hydrophobic pocket on the surface of the enzyme may participate in the trapping of CO(2) at the active site. On the basis of the coordination geometry at the active site, ligand binding modes, the behavior of the side chains of Glu 62 and Glu 84, and analogies to the well-characterized alpha-class of carbonic anhydrases, a more-defined reaction mechanism is proposed for the gamma-class of carbonic anhydrases.     

IMMOBILIZATION OF CARBONIC ANHYDRASE ENZYME PURIFIED FROM Bacillus subtilis VSG-4 AND ITS APPLICATION AS CO(2) SEQUESTERER

The purification, immobilization, and characterization of carbonic anhydrase (CA) secreted by Bacillus subtilis VSG-4 isolated from tropical soil have been investigated in this work. Carbonic anhydrase was purified using ammonium sulfate precipitation, Sephadex-G-75 column chromatography, and DEAE-cellulose chromatography, achieving a 24.6-fold purification. The apparent molecular mass of purified CA obtained by SDS-PAGE was found to be 37 kD. The purified CA was entrapped within a chitosan-alginate polyelectrolyte complex (C-A PEC) hydrogel for potential use as an immobilized enzyme. The optimum pH and temperature for both free and immobilized enzymes were 8.2 and 37°C, respectively. The immobilized enzyme had a much higher storage stability than the free enzyme. Certain metal ions, namely, Co(2+), Cu(2+), and Fe(3+), increased the enzyme activity, whereas CA activity was inhibited by Pb(2+), Hg(2+), ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), 5,5'-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid (DTNB), and acetazolamide. Free and immobilized CAs were tested further for the targeted application of the carbonation reaction to convert CO(2) to CaCO(3). The maximum CO(2) sequestration potential was achieved with immobilized CA (480?mg CaCO(3)/mg protein). These properties suggest that immobilized VSG-4 carbonic anhydrase has the potential to be used for biomimetic CO(2) sequestration.     

Proposal for a hydrogen bond network in the active site of the prototypic gamma-class carbonic anhydrase

The crystal structure of Cam, the prototypic gamma-class carbonic anhydrase, reveals active site residues Gln75, Asn73, and Asn 202 previously hypothesized to participate in catalysis. These potential roles were investigated for the first time by kinetic analyses of site-specific replacement variants of the zinc and cobalt forms of Cam. Gln75 replacement variants showed large decreases in k(cat)/K(m) relative to wild-type. Further, the Gln75 variants showed a loss of the pK(a) in pH versus k(cat)/K(m) profiles previously attributed to ionization of the metal-bound water yielding the hydroxyl group attacking CO(2). These results support the previously proposed role for Gln75 in hydrogen bonding with the catalytic hydroxyl orienting it for attack on CO(2). Kinetic analyses of Asn73 variants were consistent with a role in hydrogen bonding with Gln75 to position it for optimal interaction with the catalytic hydroxyl. Kinetic analyses of Asn202 variants showed substantial decreases in k(cat)/K(m) relative to the wild-type enzyme supporting the previously hypothesized role in polarizing CO(2) and facilitating attack from the metal-bound hydroxyl. On the basis of results presented here, and previously reported structural analyses, we present a catalytic mechanism involving Gln75, Asn73, and Asn202 that also suggests a role for Glu62 not previously recognized. Finally, the results suggest that the gamma-, beta-, and alpha-class carbonic anhydrases each independently evolved variations of a fundamental hydrogen bond network essential for catalysis.     

Prokaryotic carbonic anhydrases

Carbonic anhydrases catalyze the reversible hydration of CO(2) [CO(2)+H(2)Oright harpoon over left harpoon HCO(3)(-)+H(+)]. Since the discovery of this zinc (Zn) metalloenzyme in erythrocytes over 65 years ago, carbonic anhydrase has not only been found in virtually all mammalian tissues but is also abundant in plants and green unicellular algae. The enzyme is important to many eukaryotic physiological processes such as respiration, CO(2) transport and photosynthesis. Although ubiquitous in highly evolved organisms from the Eukarya domain, the enzyme has received scant attention in prokaryotes from the Bacteria and Archaea domains and has been purified from only five species since it was first identified in Neisseria sicca in 1963. Recent work has shown that carbonic anhydrase is widespread in metabolically diverse species from both the Archaea and Bacteria domains indicating that the enzyme has a more extensive and fundamental role in prokaryotic biology than previously recognized. A remarkable feature of carbonic anhydrase is the existence of three distinct classes (designated alpha, beta and gamma) that have no significant sequence identity and were invented independently. Thus, the carbonic anhydrase classes are excellent examples of convergent evolution of catalytic function. Genes encoding enzymes from all three classes have been identified in the prokaryotes with the beta and gamma classes predominating. All of the mammalian isozymes (including the 10 human isozymes) belong to the alpha class; however, only nine alpha class carbonic anhydrase genes have thus far been found in the Bacteria domain and none in the Archaea domain. The beta class is comprised of enzymes from the chloroplasts of both monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants as well as enzymes from phylogenetically diverse species from the Archaea and Bacteria domains. The only gamma class carbonic anhydrase that has thus far been isolated and characterized is from the methanoarchaeon Methanosarcina thermophila. Interestingly, many prokaryotes contain carbonic anhydrase genes from more than one class; some even contain genes from all three known classes. In addition, some prokaryotes contain multiple genes encoding carbonic anhydrases from the same class. The presence of multiple carbonic anhydrase genes within a species underscores the importance of this enzyme in prokaryotic physiology; however, the role(s) of this enzyme is still largely unknown. Even though most of the information known about the function(s) of carbonic anhydrase primarily relates to its role in cyanobacterial CO(2) fixation, the prokaryotic enzyme has also been shown to function in cyanate degradation and the survival of intracellular pathogens within their host. Investigations into prokaryotic carbonic anhydrase have already led to the identification of a new class (gamma) and future research will undoubtedly reveal novel functions for carbonic anhydrase in prokaryotes.     

Purification and properties of the carbonic anhydrase of Rhodospirillum rubrum

The carbonic anhydrase (EC 4.2.1.1) of Rhodospirillum rubrum has been purified to apparent homogeneity and some of its properties have been determined. The enzyme was cytoplasmic and was found only in photosynthetically grown cells. It had a molecular weight of about 28,000, and was apparently composed of two equal subunits. The amino acid composition was similar to that of other reported carbonic anhydrases except that the R. rubrum enzyme contained no arginine. The isoelectric point of the enzyme was 6.2 and the pH optimum was 7.5. It required Zn(II) for stability and enzymatic activity. The K _m(CO₂) was 80 mM. Typical carbonic anhydrase inhibition patterns were found with the R. rubrum enzyme. Strong acetazolamide and sulfanilamide inhibition confirmed the importance of Zn(II) for enzymatic activity as did the anionic inhibitors iodide, and azide. Other inhibitors indicated that histidine, sulfhydryl, lysine and serine residues were important for enzymatic activity.Abbreviation CA carbonic anhydrase In memory of R. Y. Stanier     

Catalytic properties and inhibition of Cd2+-carbonic anhydrases

Cd2+ derivatives of human carbonic anhydrases I and II and bovine red cell carbonic anhydrase (carbonate hydro-lyase, EC 4.2.1.1) have been prepared. The metal ion in these derivatives is readily displaced by Zn2+. The Cd2+-carbonic anhydrases have appreciable 4-nitrophenyl acetate hydrolase activities. These activities increase with pH as if dependent on the basic form of a group with pKa near 10. The Cd2+-carbonic anhydrases also have significant CO2 hydration activities. The Cd2+ derivatives are strongly inhibited by monovalent anions. In particular, I- is a much more potent inhibitor of the Cd2+ enzymes than of the native enzymes. Acetazolamide (5-acetylamido-1,3,4-thiadiazole 2-sulfonamide) is also a strong inhibitor although its affinity for the Cd2+ enzyme is less than its affinity for the native enzyme.     

Indispensability of the Escherichia coli carbonic anhydrases YadF and CynT in cell proliferation at a low CO2 partial pressure

We found that a carbonic anhydrase, YadF, is essential for cell growth in the absence of another carbonic anhydrase, CynT, in Escherichia coli. However, mutant strains lacking both of them grew at high CO2 concentrations (5%), where non-enzymatic mechanisms generate HCO3-. This suggests that these carbonic anhydrases are essential because they maintain HCO3- levels at ambient CO2 concentrations.     

Pulmonary carbonic anhydrase in the human, monkey, and rat

The distribution of carbonic anhydrase in the human, monkey, and rat lung was studied by the histochemical method of Hansson. High activity of this enzyme was demonstrated in the endothelium of pulmonary capillaries. In the human and the monkey lung enzyme activity was exhibited in the whole circumference of the capillaries, but in the rat enzyme activity is confined to capillary segments having close contact with alveolar epithelium forming the blood-air barrier. Staining was inhibited by 10 microM acetazolamide, but was not affected by 10 microM Cl 13,850, an inactive acetazolamide analogue. The location of carbonic anhydrase in the lung supports the idea that pulmonary carbonic anhydrase promotes CO2 elimination from the blood into the alveolar space. Its possible functions may be to act upon plasma to accelerate the conversion of HCO-3 to CO2 and to facilitate CO2 transport through the lung tissue.     

Carbon Oxysulfide Inhibition of the CO(2)-Concentrating Process of Unicellular Green Algae

Carbonyl sulfide (COS), a substrate for carbonic anhydrase, inhibited alkalization of the medium, O₂ evolution, dissolved inorganic carbon accumulation, and photosynthetic CO₂ fixation at pH 7 or higher by five species of unicellular green algae that had been air-adapted for forming a CO₂-concentrating process. This COS inhibition can be attributed to inhibition of external HCO₃⁻ conversion to CO₂ and OH⁻ by the carbonic anhydrase component of an active CO₂ pump. At a low pH of 5 to 6, COS stimulated O₂ evolution during photosynthesis by algae with low CO₂ in the media without alkalization of the media. This is attributed to some COS hydrolysis by carbonic anhydrase to CO₂. Although COS had less effect on HCO₃⁻ accumulation at pH 9 by a HCO₃⁻ pump in Scenedesmus, COS reduced O₂ evolution probably by inhibiting internal carbonic anhydrases. Because COS is hydrolyzed to CO₂ and H₂S, its inhibition of the CO₂ pump activity and photosynthesis is not accurate, when measured by O₂ evolution, by NaH¹⁴CO₃ accumulation, or by ¹⁴CO₂ fixation.     

Proton transfer to residues of basic pK(a) during catalysis by carbonic anhydrase.

The maximal velocity in the hydration of CO(2) catalyzed by the carbonic anhydrases in well-buffered solutions is limited by an intramolecular proton transfer from zinc-bound water to acceptor groups of the enzyme and hence to buffer in solution. Stopped-flow spectrophotometry was used to accumulate evidence that this maximal velocity is affected by residues of basic pK(a), near 8 to above 9, in catalysis of the hydration of CO(2) by carbonic anhydrases III, IV, V, and VII. A mutant of carbonic anhydrase II containing the replacement His-64-->Ala, which removes the prominent histidine proton shuttle (with pK(a) near 7), allows better observation of these basic groups. We suggest this feature of catalysis is general for the human and animal carbonic anhydrases and is due to residues of basic pK(a), predominantly lysines and tyrosines more distant from the zinc than His-64, that act as proton acceptors. These groups supplement the well-studied proton transfer from zinc-bound water to His-64 in the most efficient of the carbonic anhydrases, isozymes II, IV, and VII.     

Carbonic anhydrase in Escherichia coli. A product of the cyn operon.

The product of the cynT gene of the cyn operon in Escherichia coli has been identified as a carbonic anhydrase. The cyn operon also includes the gene cynS, encoding the enzyme cyanase. Cyanase catalyzes the reaction of cyanate with bicarbonate to give ammonia and carbon dioxide. The carbonic anhydrase was isolated from an Escherichia coli strain overexpressing the cynT gene and characterized. The purified enzyme was shown to contain 1 Zn2+/subunit (24 kDa) and was found to behave as an oligomer in solution; the presence of bicarbonate resulted in partial dissociation of the oligomeric enzyme. The kinetic properties of the enzyme are similar to those of carbonic anhydrases from other species, including inhibition by sulfonamides and cyanate. The amino acid sequence shows a high degree of identity with the sequences of two plant carbonic anhydrases. but not with animal and algal carbonic anhydrases. Since carbon dioxide formed in the bicarbonate-dependent decomposition of cyanate diffuses out of the cell faster than it would be hydrated to bicarbonate, the apparent function of the induced carbonic anhydrase is to catalyze hydration of carbon dioxide and thus prevent depletion of cellular bicarbonate.