Assessment of the effects of holding time and temperature on Escherichia coli densities in surface water samples

Escherichia coli is a routinely used microbiological indicator of water quality. To determine whether holding time and storage conditions had an effect on E. coli densities in surface water, studies were conducted in three phases, encompassing 24 sites across the United States and four commonly used monitoring methods. During all three phases of the study, E. coli samples were analyzed at time 0 and at 8, 24, 30, and 48 h after sample collection. During phase 1, when 4 degrees C samples were evaluated by Colilert or by placing a membrane onto mFC medium followed by transfer to nutrient agar containing 4-methylumbelliferyl-beta-D-glucuronide (mFC/NA-MUG), three of four sites showed no significant differences throughout the 48-h study. During phase 2, five of seven sites showed no significant difference between time 0 and 24 h by membrane filtration (mFC/NA-MUG). When evaluated by the Colilert method, five of seven sites showed no significant difference in E. coli density between time 0 and 48 h. During phase 3, 8 of 13 sites showed no significant differences in E. coli densities between time 0 and the 48-h holding time, regardless of method. Based on the results of these studies, it appears that if samples are held below 10 degrees C and are not allowed to freeze, most surface water E. coli samples analyzed by commonly used methods beyond 8 h after sample collection can generate E. coli data comparable to those generated within 8 h of sample collection. Notwithstanding this conclusion, E. coli samples collected from surface waters should always be analyzed as soon as possible.     

Monthly population density and structure patterns of an endangered seahorse Hippocampus capensis: a comparison between natural and artificial habitats

This study investigated aspects of the population ecology of the endangered Knysna seahorse Hippocampus capensis within different habitat types. High densities of H. capensis were found within artificial Reno mattress habitat, within the Knysna Estuary, South Africa. Monthly surveys at three sites were conducted from October 2015 to August 2016 to compare population densities of H. capensis in this artificial habitat with natural eel grass Zostera capensis habitat. Hippocampus capensis densities varied significantly across all sites and highest population densities were consistently observed within the Reno mattress habitat. Hippocampus capensis were also found to be significantly larger within the Reno mattress habitat and pooled data showed that males were significantly larger than females. The overall sex ratio for all three sites was female biased, although this varied across seasons at two sites. The findings suggest that artificial Reno mattresses provide novel habitat for this endangered species and consideration should be given to the usefulness of these structures in future conservation actions.     

Small-sized invertebrates in a gravel stream: community structure and variability of benthic rotifers

1. The Rotifera assemblage inhabiting the streambed surface and the hyporheic zone of a gravel stream was investigated between October 1991 and October 1992. Forty-two species of Monogononta and 27 of Bdelloidea were identified. Within these two classes, dominant species differed between the surface and the hyporheic zone. At the streambed surface, the abundance of monogonont rotifers showed a seasonal pattern with significantly higher densities in pools, whereas bdelloids showed no clear temporal trend and did not differ significantly among sites. In the hyporheic zone, the depth distribution differed among the two rotifer groups, bdelloids occurred in highest densities between 0 and 30 cm sediment depth, while monogononts were most abundant at greater depths.
2. Species composition differed greatly between successive sampling dates (min. 5 to max. 26 days) at both the streambed surface and the hyporheos. At the streambed surface and in the shallow hyporheos a significantly higher percentage of species was replaced in riffles than in pools.
3. Few measured hydrophysical variables were associated with the Rotifera assemblage structure. At the streambed surface, species richness was negatively correlated with water temperature and substratum heterogeneity, and Monogononta rotifer densities declined with water depth and substratum roughness.
4. Permutation tests carried out on temporal serial correlations showed that, at riffle sites at the streambed surface, bdelloid rotifer densities, rotifer species richness and diversity did not differ significantly from a temporal, near-random pattern. The hyporheic rotifer assemblage followed similar near-random patterns.     

Pioneer marine biofilms on artificial surfaces including antifouling coatings immersed in two contrasting French Mediterranean coast sites

Marine biofilm communities that developed on artificial substrata were investigated using molecular and microscopic approaches. Polystyrene, Teflon® and four antifouling (AF) paints were immersed for 2 weeks at two contrasting sites near Toulon on the French Mediterranean coast (Toulon military harbour and the natural protected area of Porquerolles Island). Biofilms comprising bacteria and diatoms were detected on all the coatings. The population structure as well as the densities of the microorganisms differed in terms of both sites and coatings. Lower fouling densities were observed at Porquerolles Island compared to Toulon harbour. All bacterial communities (analysed by PCR-DGGE) showed related structure, controlled both by the sites and the type of substrata. Pioneer microalgal communities were dominated by the same two diatom species, viz. Licmophora gracilis and Cylindrotheca closterium, at both sites, irrespective of the substrata involved. However, the density of diatoms followed the same trend at both sites with a significant effect of all the AF coatings compared to Teflon and polystyrene.     

Pioneer marine biofilms on artificial surfaces including antifouling coatings immersed in two contrasting French Mediterranean coast sites

Marine biofilm communities that developed on artificial substrata were investigated using molecular and microscopic approaches. Polystyrene, Teflon? and four antifouling (AF) paints were immersed for 2 weeks at two contrasting sites near Toulon on the French Mediterranean coast (Toulon military harbour and the natural protected area of Porquerolles Island). Biofilms comprising bacteria and diatoms were detected on all the coatings. The population structure as well as the densities of the microorganisms differed in terms of both sites and coatings. Lower fouling densities were observed at Porquerolles Island compared to Toulon harbour. All bacterial communities (analysed by PCR-DGGE) showed related structure, controlled both by the sites and the type of substrata. Pioneer microalgal communities were dominated by the same two diatom species, viz. Licmophora gracilis and Cylindrotheca closterium, at both sites, irrespective of the substrata involved. However, the density of diatoms followed the same trend at both sites with a significant effect of all the AF coatings compared to Teflon and polystyrene.     

Variation in herbivore density among host plants and its consequences for community structure

Summary The densities of four species of gall-forming sawflies were found to vary significantly among willow host plant clones. Two of the speices varied among host plants at four sites in each of three years. The other two species varied in density among host plants at most of the sites in two of the three years. Total sawfly density also varied significantly among clones. Individual species densities on willow clones were significantly positively correlated between years when all sites were combined and frequently when sites were considered separately. Most pairwise species combinations were independent in density between years, but some negative correlations existed between the stem galler and the leaf galler. Gall-former densities also were largely independent among clones within years with all sites combined and with sites considered separately. The significant correlations were nearly all positive. At all four sites the combination of significant variation in sawfly densities among willow clones in the field and independence of species densities among clones resulted in significantly different communities (relative abundance of species) among willow clones in three years. Although sawfly abundances differed substantially among the four sites, this remained true. It is argued that the pattern of community structure among clones is the result of variation in host plant quality of clones. We propose an hypothesis to account for patterns of herbivore species associations based on intrapopulation host plant variation.     

Skuas on the Eurasian tundra; relative occurrence of species, ages and colour phases

The breeding ranges of the three closely related skua species in the genus Stercorarius are highly sympatric on the Arctic tundra. During the Swedish-Russian Tundra Ecology Expedition, 1994, the ages and colour phases of Pomarine Skuas Stercorarius pomarinus , Arctic Skuas Stercorarius parasiticus and Long-tailed Skuas Stercorarius longicaudus were recorded at 15 sites along a transect across 140̀ of longitude from the Kola Peninsula in the west to Wrangel Island in the east. An index of the lemming numbers was also measured. Pomarine Skua comprised 52% of the 1587 skuas seen, with 38% Long-tailed Skua and 10% Arctic Skua. The Arctic Skua occurred at low densities all along the transect. The Pomarine Skua was most common at the northernmost sites in this lemming year. It was absent from all sites with low rodent densities but also from two more southerly sites with high lemming numbers. The Long-tailed Skua showed a distribution sympatric with that of the Pomarine Skua but occurred at lower densities, and it also bred at the more southerly sites. No skuas in second-year plumage were observed. Older subadult skuas were observed in increasing numbers with age. The proportion of subadults was markedly higher in the Pomarine Skua (10%) compared with the two other species. The proportion of dark Pomarine Skuas was about 8% all along the transect. In the Arctic Skua, there was an extremely marked shift from 64% dark birds on the Kola Peninsula to an almost complete dominance by the light phase in the rest of Arctic Russia. I suggest that dark skuas are more efficient kleptoparasites over the sea while the light phase is at an advantage hunting over the tundra.     

Interpreting Space Use and Behavior of Blue Tang, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acanthurus coeruleus</Emphasis>, in the Context of Habitat,Density, and Intra-specific Interactions

Synopsis We hypothesized that blue tang, Acanthurus coeruleus, territories on sites with low biogenic structure would be larger than territories on sites with relatively high biogenic structure due to differences in the amount and distribution of resources. We tested this hypothesis by tracking blue tang over uncolonized pavement and reef crest, two habitat types at opposite ends of the habitat structure spectrum. We recorded density, feeding rates and aggression events in order to evaluate our findings in the context of a territory model and the ideal free distribution model. Territories of A. coeruleus averaged nearly four times larger on pavement sites than on reef crest sites. Conversely, densities of A. coeruleus were significantly lower on pavement sites. While there was no significant difference in the average rates of movement between habitats, average turning angles were significantly higher on reef crest. There were no significant differences in feeding rates between habitats, suggesting that higher territory sizes and lower densities may allow fish on uncolonized pavement to match resource acquisition of fish on reef crest. The insignificant difference of aggression encounters between habitats suggests that movement and density differences among habitats are not solely legacies of differential settlement.     

Survival and enumeration of the fecal indicators Bifidobacterium adolescentis and Escherichia coli in a tropical rain forest watershed

The density of Bifidobacterium spp., fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, and total anaerobic bacteria, acridine orange direct counts, percentages of total bacterial community activity and respiration, and 12 physical and chemical parameters were measured simultaneously at six sites for 12 months in the Mameyes River rain forest watershed, Puerto Rico. The densities of all bacteria were higher than those reported for uncontaminated temperate rivers, even though other water quality parameters would indicate that all uncontaminated sites were oligotrophic. The highest densities for all indicator bacteria were at the site receiving sewage effluent; however, the highest elevation site in the watershed had the next highest densities. Correlations between bacterial densities, nitrates, temperature, phosphates, and total phosphorus indicated that all viable counts were related to nutrient levels, regardless of the site sampled. In situ diffusion chamber studies at two different sites indicated that E. coli could survive, remain physiologically active, and regrow at rates that were dependent on nutrient levels of the ambient waters. Bifidobacterium adolescentis did not survive at either site but did show different rates of decline and physiological activity at the two sites. Bifidobacteria show promise as a better indicator of recent fecal contamination in tropical freshwaters than E. coli or fecal coliforms; however, the YN-6 medium did not prove to be effective for enumeration of bifidobacteria. The coliform maximum contaminant levels for assessing water usability for drinking and recreation appear to be unworkable in tropical freshwaters.     

Survival and enumeration of the fecal indicators Bifidobacterium adolescentis and Escherichia coli in a tropical rain forest watershed.

The density of Bifidobacterium spp., fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, and total anaerobic bacteria, acridine orange direct counts, percentages of total bacterial community activity and respiration, and 12 physical and chemical parameters were measured simultaneously at six sites for 12 months in the Mameyes River rain forest watershed, Puerto Rico. The densities of all bacteria were higher than those reported for uncontaminated temperate rivers, even though other water quality parameters would indicate that all uncontaminated sites were oligotrophic. The highest densities for all indicator bacteria were at the site receiving sewage effluent; however, the highest elevation site in the watershed had the next highest densities. Correlations between bacterial densities, nitrates, temperature, phosphates, and total phosphorus indicated that all viable counts were related to nutrient levels, regardless of the site sampled. In situ diffusion chamber studies at two different sites indicated that E. coli could survive, remain physiologically active, and regrow at rates that were dependent on nutrient levels of the ambient waters. Bifidobacterium adolescentis did not survive at either site but did show different rates of decline and physiological activity at the two sites. Bifidobacteria show promise as a better indicator of recent fecal contamination in tropical freshwaters than E. coli or fecal coliforms; however, the YN-6 medium did not prove to be effective for enumeration of bifidobacteria. The coliform maximum contaminant levels for assessing water usability for drinking and recreation appear to be unworkable in tropical freshwaters.     

The demography of the annual halophyte Spergularia marina on a baltic seashore meadow

The survivorship and reproduction of the annual halophyte Spergularia marina was studied during four years on three different sites on a Baltic seashore meadow. The survivorship showed variation both between years and between sites. The mortality rate was not density-dependent in spite of very high densities in some years. At two of the sites the seed output was related to density, but individuals differed in their reproductive capacity. Limitation of the flower production was the main reason for this difference. At the third site the length of the flowering season determined the reproductive output.     

深圳红树林区浮游植物时空变化与水质要素的关系

在探讨深圳福田红树林区浮游植物群落结构及种群数量变化规律的基础上,对红树林区不同水质环境中浮游植物时空变化进行了研究,初步分析主要水质因子与浮游植物密度时空变化的相关关系。分析表明,福田红树林区浮游植物有5门28属51种(含未知9种),以硅藻门种类为主,优势种为微小小环藻(Cyclotella caspia)和诺氏海链藻(Thalassiosira nordenskiöldi)等,蓝藻、绿藻能发展成为优势类群,优势种为小颤藻(Oscillatoria minima)和小球藻(Chlorella vulgaris)等。浮游植物种类组成季节变化明显,空间变化显著。浮游植物密度空间变化明显,季节差异不大。各季度的浮游植物密度较高,达到106cells·L^-1的级别。由于接纳生活污水、工业废水、养殖废水等陆源污水,5个站位的主要水质因子受污水排放影响明显,站位受陆源污水影响的顺序依次为:Ⅳ>Ⅱ>Ⅴ>Ⅰ>Ⅲ,污水排放进入红树林区的水域水质显著区别于完全海水水域。陆源污水输入对浮游植物密度时空变化造成显著影响,浮游植物密度与总氮浓度、盐度相关性较好,与总氮成显著负相关,与盐度成显著正相关。     

Spatial and temporal patterns of invertebrate drift in streams draining a Neotropical landscape

1. Invertebrate drift in streams draining a tropical landscape in Costa Rica was studied to assess differences in assemblage composition above and below a major gradient break in geomorphic landform and to assess temporal patterns of drift in lowland reaches below the gradient break. The gradient break (～50 m a.s.l.) is the point at which the foothills of the Costa Rican Cordillera Central (piedmont) merge with the Caribbean coastal plain (lowlands).
2. Spatial patterns were assessed along two streams by sampling drift over 24 h once a month for 3 months in both the piedmont (90 m a.s.l.) and lowlands (30 m a.s.l.). Temporal patterns of drift were assessed through monthly diel sampling of three lowland sites over 8–10 months, encompassing both ‘dry’ (<400 mm precipitation per month, November to May) and wet (July to October) seasons.
3. Drift composition was insect dominated in piedmont sites and larval shrimp dominated in the lowlands. Percent similarity of assemblages between piedmont and lowland sites was low (range 26–43%) because of high larval shrimp densities in lowland versus piedmont sites.
4. Drift densities were higher during night than day, with peaks at sunset on all dates and at all sites. Diel patterns in drift agree with previous observations for the study area and support the ‘risk of predation’ hypothesis.
5. Analysis of monthly patterns in lowland sites showed high variability in drift densities; however, all major taxa were found every month. Overall, there was a trend for high invertebrate densities during the ‘dry’ season, but these trends were not significant.
6. Observed changes in drift composition support the concept of river zonation, which predicts a change in community composition along the stream continuum due to geomorphic features. Drift at lowland sites below the gradient break was dominated by shrimps, which are linked to marine environments via their migratory behaviour.     

Densities of Ixodes ricinus ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) on moorland vegetation communities in the UK

Unfed (questing) Ixodes ricinus ticks were collected by blanket dragging on a monthly basis from heather-dominated, Vaccinium-dominated and bracken-dominated vegetation communities from two different biogeographical regions of the UK (the Quantock Hills in Somerset, south west England and the North York Moors, north east England) throughout the spring and summer months of 1991 and 1992. Eighteen sites were monitored across the two regions and a total of 1920 blanket drags were carried out. Vaccinium sites showed high tick densities at all life stages, as did bracken sites. Significantly lower numbers of larval and nymphal ticks per drag were collected on heather sites than were collected on either Vaccinium (bilberry/whortleberry) or bracken sites, while similar numbers of adult ticks per drag were collected from each of the three vegetation communities. There was no significant difference between the mean numbers of any tick life stage collected on the Quantock Hills and those collected on the North York Moors on these vegetation communities or between the mean numbers of any tick life stage collected in 1991 and those collected in 1992 on these vegetation communities.     

Variation of snail's abundance in two water bodies harboring strains of Pseudosuccinea columella resistant and susceptible to Fasciola hepatica miracidial infection, in Pinar del Río Province, Cuba

The abundance of freshwater snails in two rural sites of Pinar del Río, Cuba, which harbor Pseudosuccinea columella susceptible and resistant to miracidia of Fasciola hepatica was followed for one year. Susceptible snails were found in the most anthropic site (IPA) whereas the resistant population inhabited the most preserved one (El Azufre). Only two snail species coexisted with P. columella at IPA site (Physa cubensis and Tarebia granifera) while five species were found at El Azufre, including an endemic from that province (Hemisinus cubanianus). Populations of both resistant and susceptible snails showed stable densities throughout the year, although the susceptible strain attained higher abundance. The highest densities were observed in April-May 2004 for the susceptible population whereas the resistant strain attained its highest abundance in January 2004. No record of Fossaria cubensis was made and the thiarid T. granifera occurred only at low densities. One of the sampled sites (IPA) meets all the conditions for the first report of P. columella naturally infected with larvae of F. hepatica.     

不同生境条件下羊草种群无性系和有性生殖特征的比较研究

比较研究了东北草原不同生境条件下4个羊草种群无性系和有性生殖数量特征的差异,结果表明,由于各种群所处立地的资源差异(特别是土壤水分),导致各种群在无性系(包括营养枝和根茎芽密度)和有性生殖(生殖枝密度、生殖枝分化率、生殖贡献)等数量特征方面差异显著,尤其在低平原种群与沙丘种群之间最为显著.与沙丘种群相比,低平原种群营养枝平均密度高50%;根茎芽平均密度高30%以上;生殖枝密度平均值高200%以上.     

Effects of habitat fragmentation on the three-way interaction among ants,aphids and larvae of the giant purple emperor, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sasakia charonda</Emphasis> (Hewitson), a near-threatened butterfly

Survival rates of both early and middle instar larvae of the nymphalid butterfly, Sasakia charonda, were estimated to be lowest on test trees planted in a meadow (site A), intermediate in a small, narrow secondary deciduous broadleaf forest (small patch, site B) and highest in a large secondary deciduous broadleaf forest (large forest, site C). The larval mortality rates due to predation by tree-climbing predators from the ground (tree climbing predator) such as ants and the larvae of carabids were estimated to be greater at sites A and B than those at site C. The number of predatory ants climbing test trees was significantly greater at sites A and B than at site C, and the ants harvested honeydew from aphids living on tree leaves at those two sites. Aphid densities were significantly higher on trees at sites A and B than at site C, and aphid densities and numbers of predatory ants were significantly and positively correlated at sites A and B. In an experiment controlling aphid density per branch on test trees, the numbers of ants and the mortality rates of S. charonda larvae were greater on branches with high aphid densities than on those with low aphid densities at both sites A and B. These results suggest that the aphid density per host tree was higher in the meadow and the small patch than in the large forest; at both sites these higher aphid densities attracted higher numbers of predatory ants to test trees, and as a result, mortality rates of S. charonda larvae were increased.     

Variation in populations of Littorina obtusata and L. mariae (Gastropoda) in the Severn Estuary

Populations of both species of flat periwinkle were examined at five discrete sites along the Severn Estuary, and at a marine site in Dyfed. The vertical distribution of the two species showed a clear partitioning of the shore – Littorina obtusata occupied the high/mid shore and L. mariae the low shore area. L. obtusata also extended further up the Severn Estuary than L. mariae. Maximum densities of both species were found in Milford Haven. Biometric investigations revealed intra and inter-specific differences in colour morphs, shell damage and size between populations. The possible influence of differential selection pressures at the various sites is discussed.     

Distribution and abundance of zooplankton in the Waikato River,New Zealand

Potamoplankton is often a well developed component in large lowland rivers, yet little is known about its structure in New Zealand's longest river, the Waikato River. To redress this gap we sampled bimonthly at seven sites along the length of the river over 12 months. Rotifers were the dominant zooplankton in the Waikato River making up 85% of the total densities. Cladocerans represented 9% and copepods only 6%. Rotifers were also the most taxonomically rich group with 41 species in 20 genera identified throughout the study. Thirty rotifer species and nine genera represent new records for the river – two cladoceran species were also recorded for the first time. The highest densities of crustaceans and rotifers were found in the hydro lakes. Densities of crustaceans decreased with increasing distance downstream and densities of rotifers were on average 15 times greater than crustaceans in the lower river. The seasonality of Crustacea was similar to that in New Zealand lakes and rivers with high densities in summer and minimum densities over the winter period. Total rotifer densities showed a similar trend although there were marked seasonal differences between individual species.