Biochemical and thermodynamic comparison of the selenocysteine containing and non-containing thioredoxin glutathione reductase of Fasciola gigantica

The thiol-disulfide redox metabolism in platyhelminth parasites depends entirely on a single selenocysteine (Sec) containing flavoenzyme, thioredoxin glutathione reductase (TGR) that links the classical thioredoxin (Trx) and glutathione (GSH) systems. In the present study, we investigated the catalytic and structural properties of different variants of Fasciola gigantica TGR to understand the role of Sec. The recombinant full-length Sec containing TGR (FgTGRsec), TGR without Sec (FgTGR) and TGRsec without the N-terminal glutaredoxin (Grx) domain (?NTD-FgTGRsec) were purified to homogeneity. Biochemical studies revealed that Sec597 is responsible for higher thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) and glutathione reductase (GR) activity of FgTGRsec. The N-terminal Grx domain was found to positively regulate the DTNB-based TrxR activity of FgTGRsec. The FgTGRsec was highly sensitive to inhibition by auranofin (AF). The structure of FgTGR was modeled, and the inhibitor AF was docked, and binding sites were identified. Unfolding studies suggest that all three proteins are highly cooperative molecules since during GdnHCl-induced denaturation, a monophasic unfolding of the proteins without stabilization of any intermediate is observed. The Cm for GdnHCl induced unfolding of FgTGR was higher than FgTGRsec and ?NTD-FgTGRsec suggesting that FgTGR without Sec was more stable in solution than the other protein variants. The free energy of stabilization for the proteins was also determined. To our knowledge, this is also the first report on unfolding and stability analysis of any TGR.     

Impairment of thioredoxin reductase activity by oxidative stress in human rheumatoid synoviocytes

The thioredoxin/thioredoxin reductase system is strongly induced in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). We have investigated the impact on TR activity of doses of superoxide anion generated by the hypoxanthine (HX)/xanthine oxidase (XO) system and by hydrogen peroxide, H₂O₂, for various times and compared the findings with synoviocytes obtained from osteoarthritis (OA) patients. At baseline, TR activity in RA cells was significantly higher than in OA cells (2.31 ± 0.65 versus 0.74 ± 0.43 mUnit/mg protein, p < 0.01). HX/XO and H₂O₂ in RA cells decreased TR activity, which was found to be unchanged in OA cells. H₂O₂ and superoxide anion caused a time-dependent accumulation of oxidized TR and induced the formation of carbonyl groups in TR protein in RA cells rather than OA cells, and oxidized the selenocysteine of the active site. The oxidation in TR protein was irreversible in RA cells but not in OA cells. In conclusion, we report that the oxidative aggression generates modifications in the redox status of the active site of the TR and induces an alteration of the Trx/TR system, concomitant with those of the other antioxidant systems that could explain the causes of oxidative stress related to RA disease.     

Glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase at the crossroad: the structure of Schistosoma mansoni thioredoxin glutathione reductase

Thioredoxin glutathione reductase (TGR) is a key flavoenzyme expressed by schistosomes that bridges two detoxification pathways crucial for the parasite survival in the host's organism. In this article we report the crystal structure (at 2.2 A resolution) of TGR from Schistosoma mansoni (SmTGR), deleted in the last two residues. The structure reveals the peculiar architecture of this chimeric enzyme: the small Glutaredoxin (Grx) domain at the N-terminus is joined to the large thioredoxin reductase (TR) one via an extended complementary surface, involving residues not conserved in the Grx superfamily; the TR domain interacts with an identical partner via its C-terminal domain, forming a dimer with a twisted "W" shape. Although lacking the penultimate Selenocysteine residue (Sec), the enzyme is still able to reduce oxidized glutathione. These data update the interpretation of the interdomain communication in TGR enzymes. The possible function of this enzyme in pathogenic parasites is discussed.     

Glutathione Reductase and Thioredoxin Reductase: Novel Antioxidant Enzymes from Plasmodium berghei

Malaria parasites adapt to the oxidative stress during their erythrocytic stages with the help of vital thioredoxin redox system and glutathione redox system. Glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase are important enzymes of these redox systems that help parasites to maintain an adequate intracellular redox environment. In the present study, activities of glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase were investigated in normal and Plasmodium berghei-infected mice red blood cells and their fractions. Activities of glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase in P. berghei-infected host erythrocytes were found to be higher than those in normal host cells. These enzymes were mainly confined to the cytosolic part of cell-free P. berghei. Full characterization and understanding of these enzymes may promise advances in chemotherapy of malaria.     

Thioredoxin and NADP-thioredoxin reductase from cultured carrot cells

Dark-grown carrot (Daucus carota L.) tissue cultures were found to contain both protein components of the NADP/thioredoxin system—NADP—thioredoxin reductase and the thioredoxin characteristic of heterotrophic systems, thioredoxin h. Thioredoxin h was purified to apparent homogeneity and, like typical bacterial counterparts, was a 12-kdalton (kDa) acidic protein capable of activating chloroplast NADP-malate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.82) more effectively than fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (EC 3.1.3.11). NADP-thioredoxin reductase (EC 1.6.4.5) was partially purified and found to be an arsenite-sensitive enzyme composed of two 34-kDa subunits. Carrot NADP-thioredoxin reductase resembled more closely its counterpart from bacteria rather than animal cells in acceptor (thioredoxin) specificity. Upon greening of the cells, the content of NADP-thioredoxin-reductase activity, and, to a lesser extent, thioredoxin h decreased. The results confirm the presence of a heterotrophic-type thioredoxin system in plant cells and raise the question of its physiological function.Abbreviations DTNB dithiolbis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) - FBPase fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase - FTR terredoxin-thioredoxin, reductase - NADP-MDH NADP-malate dehydrogenase - NTR NADP-thioredoxin reductase - SDS sodium-dodecyl sulfate     

Non-animal origin of animal thioredoxin reductases: implications for selenocysteine evolution and evolution of protein function through carboxy-terminal extensions

Thioredoxin reductase (TR) and thioredoxin constitute a major cellular redox system present in all organisms. In contrast to a single form of thioredoxin, there are two TR types: One (bacterial type or small TR) is present in bacteria, archaea, plants, and most unicellular eukaryotes, whereas the second (animal or large TR) is only found in animals and typically contains a carboxy-terminal penultimate selenocysteine encoded by TGA. Surprisingly, we detected sequences of large TRs in various unicellular eukaryotes. Moreover, green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii had both small and large TRs, with the latter being a selenoprotein, but no examples of horizontal gene transfer from animals to the green algae could be detected. In addition, phylogenetic analyses revealed that large TRs formed a subgroup of lower eukaryotic glutathione reductases (GRs). The data suggest that the large TR evolved in a lower eukaryote capable of selenocysteine insertion rather than in an animal. The enzyme appeared to evolve by a carboxy-terminal extension of GR such that the resulting carboxy-terminal glutathionelike peptide became an intramolecular substrate for GR and a reductant for thioredoxin. Subsequently, small TRs were lost in an organism that gave rise to animals, large TRs were lost in plants and fungi, and selenocysteine/cysteine replacements took place in some large TRs. Our data implicate carboxy-terminal extension of proteins as a general mechanism of evolution of new protein function.     

Sequence heterogeneity in a repetitive dna element of Fasciola

A repetitive DNA sequence used as a specific probe for Fasciola hepatica infections in snails was examined in F. hepatica and Fasciola gigantica (36 individuals) specimens from five continents. The degree of intraspecific identity ranged from 79 to 99% in F. hepatica and from 93 to 99% in F. gigantica. The interspecific identity ranged from 81 to 100%, confirming the suggestion that the DNA probe sequence could be used worldwide as an epidemiological tool for the examination of the intermediate host snail in fasciolosis. Differentiation between F. hepatica and F. gigantica infections in snails was not possible using the probe.     

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii thioredoxins: structure of the genes coding for the chloroplastic m and cytosolic h isoforms; expression in Escherichia coli of the recombinant proteins,purification and biochemical properties

Based on known amino acid sequences, probes have been generated by PCR and used for the subsequent isolation of cDNAs and genes coding for two thioredoxins (m and h) of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Thioredoxin m, a chloroplastic protein, is encoded as a preprotein of 140 amino acids (15 101 Da) containing a transit peptide of 34 amino acids with a very high content of Ala and Arg residues. The sequence for thioredoxin h codes for a 113 amino acid protein with a molecular mass of 11817 Da and no signal sequence. The thioredoxin m gene contains a single intron and seems to be more archaic in structure than the thioredoxin h gene, which is split into 4 exons. The cDNA sequences encoding C. reinhardtii thioredoxins m and h have been integrated into the pET-3d expression vector, which permits efficient production of proteins in Escherichia coli cells. A high expression level of recombinant thioredoxins was obtained (up to 50 mg/l culture). This has allowed us to study the biochemical/biophysical properties of the two recombinant proteins. Interestingly, while the m-type thioredoxin was found to have characteristics very close to the ones of prokaryotic thioredoxins, the h-type thioredoxin was quite different with respect to its kinetic behaviour and, most strikingly, its heat denaturation properties.Abbreviations DTT dithiothreitol - FBPase Fructose 1,6-biphosphate phosphatase - FTR ferredoxin-thioredoxin reductase - IPTG isopropyl thiogalactoside - NADP-MDH NADPH-dependent malate dehydrogenase - NMR nuclear magnetic resonance - NTR NADPH-dependent thioredoxin reductase Dedicated to the memory of Claude Crétin     

Characterization of mitochondrial thioredoxin reductase from C. elegans

Thioredoxin reductase catalyzes the NADPH-dependent reduction of the catalytic disulfide bond of thioredoxin. In mammals and other higher eukaryotes, thioredoxin reductases contain the rare amino acid selenocysteine at the active site. The mitochondrial enzyme from Caenorhabditis elegans, however, contains a cysteine residue in place of selenocysteine. The mitochondrial C. elegans thioredoxin reductase was cloned from an expressed sequence tag and then produced in Escherichia coli as an intein-fusion protein. The purified recombinant enzyme has a kcat of 610 min(-1) and a Km of 610 microM using E. coli thioredoxin as substrate. The reported kcat is 25% of the kcat of the mammalian enzyme and is 43-fold higher than a cysteine mutant of mammalian thioredoxin reductase. The enzyme would reduce selenocysteine, but not hydrogen peroxide or insulin. The flanking glycine residues of the GCCG motif were mutated to serine. The mutants improved substrate binding, but decreased the catalytic rate.     

Genomic organisation and alternative splicing of mouse and human thioredoxin reductase 1 genes

Background  

Thioredoxin reductase (TR) is a redox active protein involved in many cellular processes as part of the thioredoxin system. Presently there are three recognised forms of mammalian thioredoxin reductase designated as TR1, TR3 and TGR, that represent the cytosolic, mitochondrial and novel forms respectively. In this study we elucidated the genomic organisation of the mouse (Txnrd1) and human thioredoxin reductase 1 genes (TXNRD1) through library screening, restriction mapping and database mining.     

Truncated mutants of human thioredoxin reductase 1 do not exhibit glutathione reductase activity

The substrate spectrum of human thioredoxin reductase (hTrxR) is attributed to its C-terminal extension of 16 amino acids carrying a selenocysteine residue. The concept of an evolutionary link between thioredoxin reductase and glutathione reductase (GR) is presently discussed and supported by the fact that almost all residues at catalytic and substrate recognition sites are identical. Here, we addressed the question if a deletion of the C-terminal part of TrxR leads to recognition of glutathione disulfide (GSSG), the substrate of GR. We introduced mutations at the putative substrate binding site to enhance GSSG binding and turnover. However, none of these enzyme species accepted GSSG as substrate better than the full length cysteine mutant of TrxR, excluding a role of the C-terminal extension in preventing GSSG binding. Furthermore, we show that GSSG binding at the N-terminal active site of TrxR is electrostatically disfavoured.     

A Case of Fasciola hepatica Infection Mimicking Cholangiocarcinoma and ITS-1 Sequencing of the Worm

Fascioliasis is a zoonotic infection caused by Fasciola hepatica or Fasciola gigantica. We report an 87-year-old Korean male patient with postprandial abdominal pain and discomfort due to F. hepatica infection who was diagnosed and managed by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) with extraction of 2 worms. At his first visit to the hospital, a gallbladder stone was suspected. CT and magnetic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) showed an intraductal mass in the common bile duct (CBD) without proximal duct dilatation. Based on radiological findings, the presumed diagnosis was intraductal cholangiocarcinoma. However, in ERCP which was performed for biliary decompression and tissue diagnosis, movable materials were detected in the CBD. Using a basket, 2 living leaf-like parasites were removed. The worms were morphologically compatible with F. hepatica. To rule out the possibility of the worms to be another morphologically close species, in particular F. gigantica, 1 specimen was processed for genetic analysis of its ITS-1 region. The results showed that the present worms were genetically identical (100%) with F. hepatica but different from F. gigantica.     

Fasciola hepatica in Snails Collected from Water-Dropwort Fields using PCR

Fasciola hepatica is a trematode that causes zoonosis mainly in cattle and sheep and occasionally in humans. Fascioliasis has been reported in Korea; however, determining F. hepatica infection in snails has not been done recently. Thus, using PCR, we evaluated the prevalence of F. hepatica infection in snails at 4 large water-dropwort fields. Among 349 examined snails, F. hepatica-specific internal transcribed space 1 (ITS-1) and/or ITS-2 markers were detected in 12 snails and confirmed using sequence analysis. Morphologically, 213 of 349 collected snails were dextral shelled, which is the same aperture as the lymnaeid snail, the vectorial host for F. hepatica. Among the 12 F. hepatica-infected snails, 6 were known first intermediate hosts in Korea (Lymnaea viridis and L. ollula) and the remaining 6 (Lymnaea sp.) were potentially a new first intermediate host in Korea. It has been shown that the overall prevalence of the snails contaminated with F. hepatica in water-dropwort fields was 3.4%; however, the prevalence varied among the fields. This is the first study to estimate the prevalence of F. hepatica infection using the vectorial capacity of the snails in Korea.     

Reaction mechanism and regulation of mammalian thioredoxin/glutathione reductase

Thioredoxin/glutathione reductase (TGR) is a recently discovered member of the selenoprotein thioredoxin reductase family in mammals. In contrast to two other mammalian thioredoxin reductases, it contains an N-terminal glutaredoxin domain and exhibits a wide spectrum of enzyme activities. To elucidate the reaction mechanism and regulation of TGR, we prepared a recombinant mouse TGR in the selenoprotein form as well as various mutants and individual domains of this enzyme. Using these proteins, we showed that the glutaredoxin and thioredoxin reductase domains of TGR could independently catalyze reactions normally associated with each domain. The glutaredoxin domain is a monothiol glutaredoxin containing a CxxS motif at the active site, which could receive electrons from either the thioredoxin reductase domain of TGR or thioredoxin reductase 1. We also found that the C-terminal penultimate selenocysteine was required for transfer of reducing equivalents from the thiol/disulfide active site of TGR to the glutaredoxin domain. Thus, the physiologically relevant NADPH-dependent activities of TGR were dependent on this residue. In addition, we examined the effects of selenium levels in the diet and perturbations in selenocysteine tRNA function on TGR biosynthesis and found that expression of this protein was regulated by both selenium and tRNA status in liver, but was more resistant to this regulation in testes.     

The NADPH thioredoxin reductase C functions as an electron donor to 2-Cys peroxiredoxin in a thermophilic cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus elongatus BP-1

An NADPH thioredoxin reductase C was co-purified with a 2-Cys peroxiredoxin by the combination of anion exchange chromatography and electroelution from gel slices after native PAGE from a thermophilic cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus elongatus as an NAD(P)H oxidase complex induced by oxidative stress. The result provided a strong evidence that the NADPH thioredoxin reductase C interacts with the 2-Cys peroxiredoxin in vivo. An in vitro reconstitution assay with purified recombinant proteins revealed that both proteins were essential for an NADPH-dependent reduction of H₂O₂. These results suggest that the reductase transfers the reducing power from NADPH to the peroxiredoxin, which reduces peroxides in the cyanobacterium under oxidative stress. In contrast with other NADPH thioredoxin reductases, the NADPH thioredoxin reductase C contains a thioredoxin-like domain in addition to an NADPH thioredoxin reductase domain in the same polypeptide. Each domain contains a conserved CXYC motif. A point mutation at the CXYC motif in the NADPH thioredoxin reductase domain resulted in loss of the NADPH oxidation activity, while a mutation at the CXYC motif in the thioredoxin-like domain did not affect the electron transfer, indicating that this motif is not essential in the electron transport from NADPH to the 2-Cys peroxiredoxin.     

大肠杆菌tRNASec关键核苷酸位点

在原核生物中,硒蛋白合成需要tRNA~(Sec) (SelC)与硒代半胱氨酸合成(Sec synthase, SelA)、硒代半胱氨酸特异性延伸因子(Sec-specificelongationfactor,SelB)之间相互作用。【目的】基于大肠杆菌掺硒机器,寻找tRNA~(Sec)骨架上关键核苷酸位点,为解决硒蛋白目前面临的掺硒效率较低、产量低的问题提供新思路。【方法】以大鼠细胞质型硫氧还蛋白还原酶(thioredoxinreductase1,TrxR1)为掺硒模式蛋白为定点突变tRNA~(Sec),转化至BL21 (DE3) gor-获得阳性重组菌株(携带pET-TRSter/pSUABC’),用于表达大鼠硒蛋白TrxR1,然后使用2￠,5￠ADP-Sepharose亲和层析和凝胶过滤两步法分离纯化TrxR1,最后利用经典硒依赖型DTNB还原反应测定TrxR1的酶活,分析关键核苷酸位点,评价掺硒效率。【结果】在存在SECIS元件的前提下,当SelA、SelB、tRNA~(Sec)共表达时,与野生型相比,携带突变型tRNA~(Sec)所共表达的TrxR1酶活力呈现不同程度的降低,其中E.colitRNA~(Sec)的G18、G19这两个位点的所有的TrxR1酶活远低于野生型(10%);然而,a26和b7的酶活相对较高。【结论】E. coli tRNA~(Sec)骨架上G18和G19位点对于维持tRNA稳定性和灵活性发挥了关键作用,位点突变引起tRNA结构变化会影响tRNA~(Sec)与掺硒元件的互作,因此有望通过改造tRNA核苷酸位点来提高硒蛋白的掺硒效率。     

Alternative mRNAs arising from trans-splicing code for mitochondrial and cytosolic variants of Echinococcus granulosus thioredoxin Glutathione reductase

Thioredoxin and glutathione systems are the major thiol-dependent redox systems in animal cells. They transfer via the reversible oxidoreduction of thiols the reducing equivalents of NADPH to numerous substrates and substrate reductases and constitute major defenses against oxidative stress. In this study, we cloned from the helminth parasite Echinococcus granulosus two trans-spliced mRNA variants that encode thioredoxin glutathione reductases (TGR). These variants code for mitochondrial and cytosolic selenocysteine-containing isoforms that possess identical glutaredoxin (Grx) and thioredoxin reductase (TR) domains and differ exclusively in their N termini. Western blot analysis of subcellular fractions with specific anti-TGR antibodies showed that TGR is present in both compartments. The biochemical characterization of the native purified TGR suggests that the Grx and TR domains of the enzyme can function either coupled or independently of each other, because the Grx domain can accept electrons from either TR domains or the glutathione system and the TR domains can transfer electrons to either the fused Grx domain or to E. granulosus thioredoxin.     

Cloning and expression of trypanothione reductase from a New World Leishmania species

Trypanothione disulfide (T[S]₂), an unusual form of glutathione found in parasitic protozoa, plays a crucial role in the regulation of the intracellular thiol redox balance and in the defense against oxidative stress. Trypanothione reductase (TR) is central to the thiol metabolism in all trypanosomatids, including the human pathogens Trypanosoma cruzi, Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania. Here we report the cloning, sequencing and expression of the TR encoding gene from L. (L.) amazonensis. Multiple protein sequence alignment of all known trypanosomatid TRs highlights the high degree of conservation and illustrates the phylogenetic relationships. A 3D homology model for L. amazonensis TR was constructed based on the previously reported Crithidia fasciculata structure. The purified recombinant TR shows enzyme activity and in vivo expression of the native enzyme could be detected in infective promastigotes, both by Western blotting and by immunofluorescence. Nucleotide sequence data reported in this paper is available in the GenBank^TM database under accession number DQ530259.     

Two closely linked genes encoding thioredoxin and thioredoxin reductase in Clostridium litorale

The genes encoding thioredoxin and thioredoxin reductase of Clostridium litorale were cloned and sequenced. The thioredoxin reductase gene (trxB) encoded a protein of 33.9 kDa, and the deduced amino acid sequence showed 44% identity to the corresponding protein from Escherichia coli. The gene encoding thioredoxin (trxA) was located immediately downstream of trxB. TrxA and TrxB were each encoded by two gene copies, both copies presumably located on the chromosome. Like other thioredoxins from anaerobic, amino-acid-degrading bacteria investigated to date by N-terminal amino acid sequencing, thioredoxin from C. litorale exhibited characteristic deviations from the consensus sequence, e.g., GCVPC instead of WCGPC at the redox-active center. Using heterologous enzyme assays, neither thioredoxin nor thioredoxin reductase were interchangeable with the corresponding proteins of the thioredoxin system from E. coli. To elucidate the molecular basis of that incompatibility, Gly-31 in C. litorale thioredoxin was substituted with Trp (the W in the consensus sequence) by site-directed mutagenesis. The mutant protein was expressed in E. coli and was purified to homogeneity. Enzyme assays using the G31W thioredoxin revealed that Gly-31 was not responsible for the observed incompatibility with the E. coli thioredoxin reductase, but it was essential for activity of the thioredoxin system in C. litorale. Received: 19 September 1996 / Accepted: 21 May 1997     

Monitoring of Fasciola Species Contamination in Water Dropwort by cox1 Mitochondrial and ITS-2 rDNA Sequencing Analysis

Fascioliasis, a food-borne trematode zoonosis, is a disease primarily in cattle and sheep and occasionally in humans. Water dropwort (Oenanthe javanica), an aquatic perennial herb, is a common second intermediate host of Fasciola, and the fresh stems and leaves are widely used as a seasoning in the Korean diet. However, no information regarding Fasciola species contamination in water dropwort is available. Here, we collected 500 samples of water dropwort in 3 areas in Korea during February and March 2015, and the water dropwort contamination of Fasciola species was monitored by DNA sequencing analysis of the Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica specific mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) and nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS-2). Among the 500 samples assessed, the presence of F. hepatica cox1 and 1TS-2 markers were detected in 2 samples, and F. hepatica contamination was confirmed by sequencing analysis. The nucleotide sequences of cox1 PCR products from the 2 F. hepatica-contaminated samples were 96.5% identical to the F. hepatica cox1 sequences in GenBank, whereas F. gigantica cox1 sequences were 46.8% similar with the sequence detected from the cox1 positive samples. However, F. gigantica cox1 and ITS-2 markers were not detected by PCR in the 500 samples of water dropwort. Collectively, in this survey of the water dropwort contamination with Fasciola species, very low prevalence of F. hepatica contamination was detected in the samples.