Implications of small scale variation in ecological conditions for the diet and density of red colobus monkeys

In this 3-year investigation we documented patterns of density, diet, and activity of red colobus monkeys (Procolobus tephrosceles) in six areas in or near Kibale National Park, Uganda and related these patterns to availability of food resources. There were large differences in the density and behavior of the red colobus among the sites. For example, the red colobus at one site with a diverse plant community of more than 61 tree species, had a diet that included at least 42 species. In contrast, at a second site red colobus spent 92% of their feeding time eating from one species that dominated the tree community. The density of important red colobus food trees varied among sites from 32 trees/ha to 204 trees/ha, and red colobus density ranged from 0.70 groups/km² to 7.41 groups/km². Among sites, red colobus density was related to the cumulative DBH of important food trees, when one apparently anomalous site was excluded, and populations with more plant species in their diets tended to be those that were found at higher densities. Activity budgets of the red colobus populations varied markedly among sites. For example, feeding time ranged among sites from 29 to 55%, and traveling varied from 5 to 20%. When faced with increased foraging demands, red colobus reduced the time spent resting, while the time spent socializing remained fairly constant. Comparative socioecological studies typically contrast species separated by large geographical distances to ensure there is sufficient variation in the environment to detect behavioral responses. The marked differences in ecological conditions and red colobus behavior we documented over short geographical distances, suggests that small-scale contrasts are a useful tool to examine ecological determinants of behavior and community structure.     

The distribution and conservation status of colobus monkeys in Tanzania

Some problems of the subspecific taxonomy of both the black and white and the red colobus are discussed. New distribution data are given which effectively close the gap betweenC. angolensis sharpei andC. angolensis palliatus ranges. The distribution ofC. badius gordonorum is described. Brief details of the conservation status of 54 populations of colobus are given and a call made for the increased protection ofC. a. adolfi-friederici,C. a. palliatus (s.1.) andC. b. gordonorum populations.     

Taxonomy and variation of Vulpia ciliata Dumort.

The arguments lor the conspecificity of the tetraploid taxa in Vulpia section Vulpia sensu Cotton & Stace are discussed.     

中国东北地区壳囊孢属真菌分类和系统发育研究

对采自中国东北地区不同寄主植物上的壳囊孢属真菌标本进行了形态学观察,依据其子实体顶盘、腔室、分生孢子以及子囊壳、子囊、子囊孢子的形态特征,并结合其培养性状等划分为5个形态学类群;利用ITS序列分析构建了系统发育树,结果显示这5个类群的划分均得到了分子证据的支持。腔室特征、孔口数量、中柱以及黑色基线的有无、分生孢子大小等可作为壳囊孢属分类的主要依据。     

Estrogenic plant foods of red colobus monkeys and mountain gorillas in Uganda

Phytoestrogens, or naturally occurring estrogen-mimicking compounds, are found in many human plant foods, such as soybeans (Glycine max) and other legumes. Because the consumption of phytoestrogens may result in both health benefits of protecting against estrogen-dependent cancers and reproductive costs of disrupting the developing endocrine system, considerable biomedical research has been focused on the physiological and behavioral effects of these compounds. Despite this interest, little is known about the occurrence of phytoestrogens in the diets of wild primates, nor their likely evolutionary importance. We investigated the prevalence of estrogenic plant foods in the diets of two folivorous primate species, the red colobus monkey (Procolobus rufomitratus) of Kibale National Park and mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei) of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, both in Uganda. To examine plant foods for estrogenic activity, we screened 44 plant items (species and part) comprising 78.4% of the diet of red colobus monkeys and 53 plant items comprising 85.2% of the diet of mountain gorillas using transient transfection assays. At least 10.6% of the red colobus diet and 8.8% of the gorilla diet had estrogenic activity. This was mainly the result of the red colobus eating three estrogenic staple foods and the gorillas eating one estrogenic staple food. All estrogenic plants exhibited estrogen receptor (ER) subtype selectivity, as their phytoestrogens activated ERβ, but not ERα. These results demonstrate that estrogenic plant foods are routinely consumed by two folivorous primate species. Phytoestrogens in the wild plant foods of these two species and many other wild primates may have important implications for understanding primate reproductive ecology.     

Taxonomy and phylogeny of the tribePlucheeae (Asteraceae)

The tribePlucheeae (Benth.)A. Anderb., has been analysed cladistically by means of a computerized parsimony program (Hennig 86), using theArctotideae as outgroup. The results of the analysis are presented in a consensus tree and one cladogram. Four major monophyletic subgroups can be recognized: TheColeocoma group (3 genera), thePterocaulon group (3 genera), theLaggera group (6 genera), and thePluchea group (12 genera). All recognized genera are described and most genera are supplied with taxonomical notes including comments on their taxonomic status. Genera such asBlumea, Pluchea, andEpaltes are demonstrated to be unnatural assemblages.Monarrhenus andTessaria are both closely related to thePluchea complex. The old generic nameLitogyne Harv. has been taken up for one species ofEpaltes, the genusRhodogeron is reduced to a synonym ofSachsia, and the following new combinations are made;Litogyne gariepina (DC.)A. Anderb., andSachsia coronopifolia (Griseb.)A. Anderb.     

Taxonomy, phylogeny, and ecology of the heliobacteria

Heliobacteria are a recently discovered group of anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria, first described in 1983. Heliobacteria contain bacteriochlorophyll g, a pigment unique to species of this group, and synthesize the simplest photosynthetic complexes of all known phototrophs. Also, unlike all other phototrophs, heliobacteria lack a mechanism for autotrophy and produce endospores. Four genera of heliobacteria containing a total of 10 species are known. Species of the genera Heliobacterium, Heliobacillus, and Heliophilum grow best at neutral pH, whereas species of Heliorestis are alkaliphilic. Heliobacterium, Heliobacillus, and Heliophilum species form one phylogenetic clade of heliobacteria, while Heliorestis species form a second within the phylum Firmicutes of the domain Bacteria. Heliobacteria have a unique ecology, being primarily terrestrial rather than aquatic phototrophs, and may have evolved a mutualistic relationship with plants, in particular, rice plants. The genome sequence of the thermophile Heliobacterium modesticaldum supports the hypothesis that heliobacteria are “minimalist phototrophs” and that they may have played a key role in the evolution of phototrophic bacteria.     

Bigger groups have fewer parasites and similar cortisol levels: a multi-group analysis in red colobus monkeys

If stress and disease impose fitness costs, and if those costs vary as a function of group size, then stress and disease should exert selection pressures on group size. We assessed the relationships between group size, stress, and parasite infections across nine groups of red colobus monkeys (Procolobus rufomitratus) in Kibale National Park, Uganda. We used fecal cortisol as a measure of physiological stress and examined fecal samples to assess the prevalence and intensity of gastrointestinal helminth infections. We also examined the effect of behaviors that could potentially reduce parasite transmission (e.g., increasing group spread and reducing social interactions). We found that cortisol was not significantly related to group size, but parasite prevalence was negatively related to group size and group spread. The observed increase in group spread could have reduced the rate of parasite transmission in larger groups; however, it is not clear whether this was a density-dependent behavioral counter-strategy to infection or a response to food competition that also reduced parasite transmission. The results do not support the suggestion that gastrointestinal parasitism or stress directly imposed group-size-related fitness costs, and we cannot conclude that they are among the mechanisms limiting group size in red colobus monkeys.     

Inferences from quantitative analysis of dental microwear

Tooth microwear studies have been carried out for several reasons in the last decade. Most effort has been put into categorizing wear types that reflect dietary preferences in order to reconstruct the diet of extinct species. Several studies have shown that, for primates, carnivores and ruminants, it is possible to differentiate statistically the microwear associated with the major dietary adaptations in the group. It has further been found that more subtle dietary changes, such as seasonal ones, can be picked up if the sampling is good enough. It is important to recognize that, although it may be a valuable and legitimate concern to study the specific causes of different microwear patterns, that information is not essential for dietary reconstruction, if different microwear states can be shown empirically to correspond to different dietary regimes. Image enhancement and optical diffraction methods offer hope of automated scanning of large samples. This will be a major benefit as the methods currently in use are labor-intensive and time-consuming. Finally, it is urged that as many methods as possible be used to solve problems of dietary reconstruction.     

Phylogenetic analysis of polyomavirus simian virus 40 from monkeys and humans reveals genetic variation

A phylogenetic analysis of 14 complete simian virus 40 (SV40) genomes was conducted in order to determine strain relatedness and the extent of genetic variation. This analysis included infectious isolates recovered between 1960 and 1999 from primary cultures of monkey kidney cells, from contaminated poliovaccines and an adenovirus seed stock, from human malignancies, and from transformed human cells. Maximum-parsimony and distance methods revealed distinct SV40 clades. However, no clear patterns of association between genotype and viral source were apparent. One clade (clade A) is derived from strain 776, the reference strain of SV40. Clade B contains isolates from poliovaccines (strains 777 and Baylor), from monkeys (strains N128, Rh911, and K661), and from human tumors (strains SVCPC and SVMEN). Thus, adaptation is not essential for SV40 survival in humans. The C terminus of the T-antigen (T-ag-C) gene contains the highest proportion of variable sites in the SV40 genome. An analysis based on just the T-ag-C region was highly congruent with the whole-genome analysis; hence, sequencing of just this one region is useful in strain identification. Analysis of an additional 16 strains for which only the T-ag-C gene was sequenced indicated that further SV40 genetic diversity is likely, resulting in a provisional clade (clade C) that currently contains strains associated with human tumors and human strain PML-1. Four other polymorphic regions in the genome were also identified. If these regions were analyzed in conjunction with the T-ag-C region, most of the phylogenetic signal could be captured without complete genome sequencing. This report represents the first whole-genome approach to establishing phylogenetic relatedness among different strains of SV40. It will be important in the future to develop a more complete catalog of SV40 variation in its natural monkey host, to determine if SV40 strains from different clades vary in biological or pathogenic properties, and to identify which SV40 strains are transmissible among humans.     

Foraging challenges of red colobus monkeys: influence of nutrients and secondary compounds

The diet selection of two groups of red colobus monkeys (Procolobus badius) in Kibale National Park, Uganda are considered with respect to protein, fiber, digestibility, alkaloids, total phenolics, tannins, saponins, and cyanogenic glycosides. Both groups selected young leaves over mature leaves and young leaves had more protein, were more digestible, and had a higher protein to fiber ratio than mature leaves. Young and mature leaves did not differ with respect to secondary compounds. There were no differences in the phytochemical factors examined between frequently eaten foods and leaves that red colobus were never known to eat, but were relatively common in the environment. Regression analyses predicting foraging effort from the phytochemical components of the large group's diet revealed selection for only one factor, foods that are high in protein and low in fiber, when differences in food tree availability were taken into consideration. A similar analysis with the small group did not suggest selection or avoidance of foods with respect to any of the factors considered. Previous studies have found the biomass of folivorous primates to be related to the ratio of protein to fiber concentration of mature leaves in the environment. These investigations have considered variation in folivore biomass and forest composition among sites separated by hundreds of kilometers; however, large variation in folivore abundance occurs over much smaller spatial scales. In Kibale National Park the average protein to fiber ratio of the mature leaves of the 20 most abundant tree species predicted the biomass of red colobus among four neighboring sites. We examined the generality of this relationship by adding our biomass and leaf chemistry values to previously published values; 62% of the variance in colobine biomass was explained by variation in the protein to fiber ratios of mature leaves at the sites. There was no evidence that red colobus avoided plants with high levels of secondary compounds. In fact, one of the most preferred trees (Prunus africana) was the species with the highest levels of cyanogenic glycosides, and the highest saponin levels were found in the young leaves of Albizia grandibracteata, the sixth and fourth most preferred plant species for the large and small groups, respectively.     

Taxonomy and molecular phylogeny of Lethenteron lampreys in eastern Eurasia

Allozyme analyses of lampreys (genus Lethenteron ) in eastern Eurasia showed that samples of L. reissneri from the upper Amur River, Russia, possessed the diagnostic alleles of L. kessleri ( MDH‐3 *‐ 93 ). These samples were closely related to L. kessleri samples in the Ob, Lena and middle Amur Rivers and on Sakhalin and Hokkaido Islands. On the other hand, they were distantly related to samples of the northern and southern forms of L. reissneri in the Japanese Archipelago and the southern Korean Peninsula. The number of trunk myomeres in L. reissneri from the upper Amur (63–76) strongly overlapped the number in L. kessleri (64–73), but were markedly displaced from those of the northern (51–66) and southern forms (49–62). These results suggest that L. reissneri in the upper Amur basin is likely to be the same taxonomic entity as L. kessleri reported from eastern Eurasia. The genetic and morphological divergences from L. reissneri in the type locality make it appropriate to regard the northern and southern forms as distinct species, L . sp. N and sp. S. Despite the close relationships found among L. japonicum , the L. reissneri complex and L . sp. N, L . sp. S was highly divergent from other species of Lethenteron , Lampetra and Entosphenus . In the monophyletic group comprising L. japonicum , the L. reissneri complex and L . sp. N, the direction of life‐history evolution presumed from the most parsimonious character reconstruction on the molecular tree was inconsistent with the previous hypothesis that nonparasitic species arise from parasitic species, indicating the necessity of detailed assessment of characteristics. On the other hand, L . sp. S may be a relict species of the coancestor of Lethenteron , Lampetra and Entosphenus .