Nectin/PRR: an immunoglobulin-like cell adhesion molecule recruited to cadherin-based adherens junctions through interaction with Afadin, a PDZ domain-containing protein

We have isolated a novel actin filament-binding protein, named afadin, localized at cadherin-based cell-cell adherens junctions (AJs) in various tissues and cell lines. Afadin has one PDZ domain, three proline-rich regions, and one actin filament-binding domain. We found here that afadin directly interacted with a family of the immunoglobulin superfamily, which was isolated originally as the poliovirus receptor-related protein (PRR) family consisting of PRR1 and -2, and has been identified recently to be the alphaherpes virus receptor. PRR has a COOH-terminal consensus motif to which the PDZ domain of afadin binds. PRR and afadin were colocalized at cadherin-based cell-cell AJs in various tissues and cell lines. In E-cadherin-expressing EL cells, PRR was recruited to cadherin-based cell-cell AJs through interaction with afadin. PRR showed Ca2+-independent cell-cell adhesion activity. These results indicate that PRR is a cell-cell adhesion molecule of the immunoglobulin superfamily which is recruited to cadherin-based cell-cell AJs through interaction with afadin. We rename PRR as nectin (taken from the Latin word "necto" meaning "to connect").     

Ponsin/SH3P12: an l-afadin- and vinculin-binding protein localized at cell-cell and cell-matrix adherens junctions

We recently isolated a novel actin filament (F-actin)-binding protein, afadin, that has two isoforms, l- and s-afadins. l-Afadin is ubiquitously expressed and specifically localized at zonula adherens (ZA) in epithelial cells and at cell-cell adherens junction (AJ) in nonepithelial cells, whereas s-afadin is abundantly expressed in neural tissue. l-Afadin has one PDZ domain, three proline-rich regions, and one F-actin-binding domain, whereas s-afadin lacks the third proline-rich region and the F-actin-binding domain. To understand the molecular mechanism of the specific localization of l-afadin at ZA in epithelial cells and at cell-cell AJ in nonepithelial cells, we attempted here to identify an l-afadin-binding protein(s) and isolated a protein, named ponsin. Ponsin had many splicing variants and the primary structures of two of them were determined. Both the two variants had three Src homology 3 (SH3) domains and turned out to be splicing variants of SH3P12. The third proline-rich region of l-afadin bound to the region of ponsin containing the second and third SH3 domains. Ponsin was ubiquitously expressed and localized at ZA in epithelial cells, at cell-cell AJ in nonepithelial cells, and at cell-matrix AJ in both types of cells. Ponsin furthermore directly bound vinculin, an F-actin-binding protein localized at ZA in epithelial cells, at cell-cell AJ in nonepithelial cells, and at cell-matrix AJ in both types of cells. Vinculin has one proline-rich region where two proline-rich sequences are located. The proline-rich region bound to the region of ponsin containing the first and second SH3 domains. l-Afadin and vinculin bound to ponsin in a competitive manner and these three proteins hardly formed a ternary complex. These results indicate that ponsin is an l-afadin- and vinculin-binding protein localized at ZA in epithelial cells, at cell-cell AJ in nonepithelial cells, and at cell-matrix AJ in both types of cells.     

Afadin: A key molecule essential for structural organization of cell-cell junctions of polarized epithelia during embryogenesis.

Afadin is an actin filament-binding protein that binds to nectin, an immunoglobulin-like cell adhesion molecule, and is colocalized with nectin at cadherin-based cell-cell adherens junctions (AJs). To explore the function of afadin in cell-cell adhesion during embryogenesis, we generated afadin(-/-) mice and embryonic stem cells. In wild-type mice at embryonic days 6.5-8.5, afadin was highly expressed in the embryonic ectoderm and the mesoderm, but hardly detected in the extraembryonic regions such as the visceral endoderm. Afadin(-/-) mice showed developmental defects at stages during and after gastrulation, including disorganization of the ectoderm, impaired migration of the mesoderm, and loss of somites and other structures derived from both the ectoderm and the mesoderm. Cystic embryoid bodies derived from afadin(-/-) embryonic stem cells showed normal organization of the endoderm but disorganization of the ectoderm. Cell-cell AJs and tight junctions were improperly organized in the ectoderm of afadin(-/-) mice and embryoid bodies. These results indicate that afadin is highly expressed in the ectoderm- derived cells during embryogenesis and plays a key role in proper organization of AJs and tight junctions of the highly expressing cells, which is essential for proper tissue morphogenesis.     

Role of multiple bonds between the single cell adhesion molecules, nectin and cadherin, revealed by high sensitive force measurements

Nectins and cadherins, members of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), are the primary mediators for various types of cell-cell junctions. Here, intermolecular force microscopy (IFM) with force sensitivity at sub-picoNewtons is used to characterize the extracellular trans-interactions between paired nectins and paired cadherins at the single molecule level. Three and four different bound states between paired nectins and paired cadherins are, respectively, identified and characterized based on bond strength distributions where each bound state has a unique lifetime and bond length. The results indicate that multiple domains of nectins act uncooperatively, as a zipper-like multiply bonded system whereas those of cadherins act cooperatively, as a parallel-like multiply bonded system, consistent with a "fork initiation and zipper" hypothesis for the formation of cell-cell adhesion. The observed dynamic properties among multiple bonds are expected to be advantageous such that nectins search adaptively in the cell-cell exploratory recognition process while cadherins slowly stabilize in the cell-cell zippering process.     

N-glycosylation affects the adhesive function of E-Cadherin through modifying the composition of adherens junctions (AJs) in human breast carcinoma cell line MDA-MB-435

E-cadherin mediates calcium-dependent cell-cell adhesion between epithelial cells. The ectodomain of human E-cadherin contains four potential N-glycosylation sites at Asn residues 554, 566, 618, and 633. In this study, the role of N-glycosylation in E-cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesion was investigated by site-directed mutagenesis. In MDA-MB-435 cells, all four potential N-glycosylation sites of human E-cadherin were N-glycosylated. Removal of N-glycan at Asn-633 dramatically affected E-cadherin stability. In contrast, mutant E-cadherin lacking the other three N-glycans showed similar protein stability in comparison with wild-type E-cadherin. Moreover, N-glycans at Asn-554 and Asn-566 were found to affect E-cadherin-mediated calcium-dependent cell-cell adhesion, and removal of either of the two N-glycans caused a significant decrease in calcium-dependent cell-cell adhesion accompanied with elevated cell migration. Analysis of the composition of adherens junctions (AJs) revealed that removal of N-glycans on E-cadherin resulted in elevated tyrosine phosphorylation level of beta-catenin and reduced beta- and alpha-catenins at AJs. These findings demonstrate that N-glycosylation may affect the adhesive function of E-cadherin through modifying the composition of AJs.     

Activation of Cdc42 by trans interactions of the cell adhesion molecules nectins through c-Src and Cdc42-GEF FRG

Nectins, Ca2+ -independent immunoglobulin-like cell-cell adhesion molecules, initiate cell-cell adhesion by their trans interactions and recruit cadherins to cooperatively form adherens junctions (AJs). In addition, the trans interactions of nectins induce the activation of Cdc42 and Rac small G proteins, which increases the velocity of the formation of AJs. We examined here how nectins induce the activation of Cdc42 in MDCK epithelial cells and L fibroblasts. Nectins recruited and activated c-Src at the nectin-based cell-cell adhesion sites. FRG, a GDP/GTP exchange factor specific for Cdc42, was then recruited there, tyrosine phosphorylated by c-Src, and activated, causing an increase in the GTP-bound active form of Cdc42. Inhibition of the nectin-induced activation of c-Src suppressed the nectin-induced activation of FRG and Cdc42. Inhibition of the nectin-induced activation of FRG or depletion of FRG by RNA interference suppressed the nectin-induced activation of Cdc42. These results indicate that nectins induce the activation of Cdc42 through c-Src and FRG locally at the nectin-based cell-cell adhesion sites.     

Expression and involvement of gicerin, a cell adhesion molecule, in the development of chick optic tectum

Gicerin is a cell adhesion molecule belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily. It has both a homophilic binding activity and a heterophilic binding activity to neurite outgrowth factor (NOF) a molecule belonging to the laminin family. We have reported many studies on the heterophilic activity of gicerin and NOF, but the function of its homophilic binding activity in vivo had been unclear. In the retina, gicerin is expressed in retinal ganglion cells only when they extend neurites to the optic tectum. In this report we have found that gicerin is also transiently expressed in the optic tectum during this time. First, cell aggregation assays were used to show that gicerin expressed in the optic tectum displays homophilic binding activity. Then, explant cultures of embryonic day 6 chick optic tectum on gicerin-Fc chimeric protein-coated dishes and NOF-coated dishes were carried out. It was found that gicerin-gicerin homophilic interactions promoted cell migration, whereas heterophilic interactions with NOF induced neurite formation. Furthermore, when anti-gicerin antibodies were injected in order to examine the effect of gicerin protein in the formation of the tectal layer in ovo, cell migration was strongly inhibited. These data suggest that homophilic interaction of gicerin participates in the migration of neural cells during the layer formation and plays a crucial role in the organization of the optic tectum.     

Cytoplasmic domain is not essential for the cell adhesion activities of gicerin, an Ig-superfamily molecule

Gicerin is a cell adhesion molecule in the immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily and is expressed abundantly during development in the nervous system. It has homophilic cell adhesion activity and also has heterophilic binding activity with NOF (neurite outgrowth factor) and mediates neurite extension. There are two isoforms of gicerin, one with a short (s-gicerin) and the other with a longer cytoplasmic domain (l-gicerin). We have reported that s-gicerin possesses stronger activities than l-gicerin during cell aggregation, in NOF-binding, and in neurite extension. In this study, we established cell lines which expressed a mutant-gicerin whose cytoplasmic domain was deleted and we compared the above three biological activities of the mutant-gicerin with those of s- and l-gicerin. We found that the mutant-gicerin retained all these activities, but the activities were weaker than those of s-gicerin and almost the same as those of l-gicerin. We concluded that the cytoplasmic domain of gicerin is not essential for optimal adhesive activities of gicerin, but might be involved in the regulation of its activities.     

A direct interaction of axonin-1 with NgCAM-related cell adhesion molecule (NrCAM) results in guidance, but not growth of commissural axons

An interaction of growth cone axonin-1 with the floor-plate NgCAM-related cell adhesion molecule (NrCAM) was shown to play a crucial role in commissural axon guidance across the midline of the spinal cord. We now provide evidence that axonin-1 mediates a guidance signal without promoting axon elongation. In an in vitro assay, commissural axons grew preferentially on stripes coated with a mixture of NrCAM and NgCAM. This preference was abolished in the presence of anti-axonin-1 antibodies without a decrease in neurite length. Consistent with these findings, commissural axons in vivo only fail to extend along the longitudinal axis when both NrCAM and NgCAM interactions, but not when axonin-1 and NrCAM or axonin-1 and NgCAM interactions, are perturbed. Thus, we conclude that axonin-1 is involved in guidance of commissural axons without promoting their growth.     

Soluble intercellular adhesion molecules, soluble vascular cell adhesion molecules, and risk of coronary heart disease

Objective: We examined the association of circulating levels of soluble intercellular adhesion molecules (sICAM‐1) and soluble vascular cell adhesion molecules (sVCAM‐1) with coronary heart disease (CHD) risk factors and whether the adhesion molecules alone, and in combination, can serve as predictors of coronary CHD. Research Methods and Procedures: Among 18,225 men from the Health Professional Follow‐up Study who provided blood in 1994, we documented 266 incidents of non‐fatal myocardial infarction or fatal CHD during 6 years of follow‐up. The cases were matched 1:2 with non‐cases on age, smoking, and month of blood draw. We found both adhesion molecules directly associated with BMI, inflammatory biomarkers, and triglycerides and inversely associated with high‐density lipoprotein and alcohol intake (p < 0.05). After adjustment for C‐reactive protein, cholesterol‐to‐high‐density lipoprotein ratio, age, smoking, BMI, physical activity, alcohol intake, history of diabetes, parental history of CHD, aspirin use, antihypertensive drug use, and fasting status, the relative risk of CHD was 1.69 [95% confidence interval (CI), 1.14 to 2.51] for sICAM‐1 and 1.34 (95% CI, 0.91 to 1.96) for sVCAM‐1, when comparing the top quintile with the lower four quintiles. Control for other inflammatory or lipid biomarkers did not appreciably attenuate the associations. When we cross‐classified participants based on their sICAM‐1 and sVCAM‐1 levels, only the men in the top quintile of both biomarkers [relative risk = 2.39 (95% CI, 1.45 to 3.91)] had a significantly elevated risk of CHD (P interaction = 0.01, multivariate model). Discussion: sICAM‐1 and sVCAM‐1 are directly associated with obesity and other CHD risk factors. The combination of high levels of both adhesion molecules might be associated with the development of CHD, independent of other CHD risk factors.     

Caenorhabditis elegans beta-G spectrin is dispensable for establishment of epithelial polarity, but essential for muscular and neuronal function

The Caenorhabditis elegans genome encodes one alpha spectrin subunit, a beta spectrin subunit (beta-G), and a beta-H spectrin subunit. Our experiments show that the phenotype resulting from the loss of the C. elegans alpha spectrin is reproduced by tandem depletion of both beta-G and beta-H spectrins. We propose that alpha spectrin combines with the beta-G and beta-H subunits to form alpha/beta-G and alpha/beta-H heteromers that perform the entire repertoire of spectrin function in the nematode. The expression patterns of nematode beta-G spectrin and vertebrate beta spectrins exhibit three striking parallels including: (1) beta spectrins are associated with the sites of cell-cell contact in epithelial tissues; (2) the highest levels of beta-G spectrin occur in the nervous system; and (3) beta spectrin-G in striated muscle is associated with points of attachment of the myofilament apparatus to adjacent cells. Nematode beta-G spectrin associates with plasma membranes at sites of cell-cell contact, beginning at the two-cell stage, and with a dramatic increase in intensity after gastrulation when most cell proliferation has been completed. Strikingly, depletion of nematode beta-G spectrin by RNA-mediated interference to undetectable levels does not affect the establishment of structural and functional polarity in epidermis and intestine. Contrary to recent speculation, beta-G spectrin is not associated with internal membranes and depletion of beta-G spectrin was not associated with any detectable defects in secretion. Instead beta-G spectrin-deficient nematodes arrest as early larvae with progressive defects in the musculature and nervous system. Therefore, C. elegans beta-G spectrin is required for normal muscle and neuron function, but is dispensable for embryonic elongation and establishment of early epithelial polarity. We hypothesize that heteromeric spectrin evolved in metazoans in response to the needs of cells in the context of mechanically integrated tissues that can withstand the rigors imposed by an active organism.     

Expression of neural cell adhesion molecules,NCAMs, and their polysialylated forms,PSA-NCAMs,in the developing rat pituitary gland

Neural cell adhesion molecules (NCAMs) can undergo post-translational modifications, such as the addition of polysialic acid chains, thus generating PSANCAMs, which are expressed mainly during development. Since polysialylation considerably modifies NCAM adhesivity, expression of NCAMs and PSANCAMs has been investigated in the developing hypophysis by immunohistochemistry. At embryonic day 13 (E13), an antibody against NCAM outlined all cellular profiles in the entire Rathke's pouch; this labelling persisted until adulthood. NCAM expression increased in all lobes during development and concerned all pituitary cell types. In contrast, at E13, PSA-NCAMs were only detected in the neural lobe, solely constituted of pituicytes at this stage, and the tuberal lobe, the only lobe expressing hormonal mRNA at the same stage. PSA-NCAMs expression increased in the neural lobe at E17 with the arrival of the neurosecretory fibres and persisted into adulthood. In the anterior lobe, PSA-NCAMs appeared at E15 where their distribution was similar to that of the differentiating corticotrophic cells; at subsequent stages, their expression extended to the whole anterior lobe. Only two cell types, corticotrophic and somatotrophic cells, remained labelled in the adult gland. In the intermediate lobe, melanotrophic cells never expressed PSA-NCAMs but these were expressed on folliculo-stellate cells at birth, preceding the onset of innervation. These results suggest that NCAMs and PSA-NCAMs play a role in pituitary histogenesis, cell differentiation and neurointermediate lobe innervation.     

RIFLE: a novel ring zinc finger-leucine-rich repeat containing protein, regulates select cell adhesion molecules in PC12 cells

Cell adhesion molecules play a critical role in cell contacts, whether cell-cell or cell-matrix, and are regulated by multiple signaling pathways. In this report, we identify a novel ring zinc finger-leucine-rich repeat containing protein (RIFLE) and show that RIFLE, expressed in PC12 cells, enhances the Serine (Ser)21/9 phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3alpha/beta (GSK-3alpha/beta) resulting in the inhibition of GSK-3 kinase activity and increase of beta-catenin levels. RIFLE expression also is associated with elevated E-cadherin protein levels but not N-cadherin. The regulation of these cell adhesion-associated molecules by RIFLE is accompanied by a significant increase in cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesion. Moreover, increase in cell-cell adhesion but not cell-matrix adhesion by RIFLE can be mimicked by selective inhibition of GSK-3. Our results suggest that RIFLE represents a novel signaling protein that mediates components of the Wnt/wingless signaling pathway and cell adhesion in PC12 cells.     

Glycosynaptic microdomains controlling tumor cell phenotype through alteration of cell growth, adhesion, and motility

Glycosphingolipids (GSLs) GM3 (NeuAcα3Galβ4Glcβ1Cer) and GM2 (GalNAcβ4[NeuAcα3]Galβ4Glcβ1Cer) inhibit (i) cell growth through inhibition of tyrosine kinase associated with growth factor receptor (GFR), (ii) cell adhesion/motility through inhibition of integrin-dependent signaling via Src kinases, or (iii) both cell growth and motility by blocking “cross-talk” between integrins and GFRs. These inhibitory effects are enhanced when GM3 or GM2 are in complex with specific tetraspanins (TSPs) (CD9, CD81, CD82). Processes (i)-(iii) occur through specific organization of GSLs with key molecules (TSPs, caveolins, GFRs, integrins) in the glycosynaptic microdomain. Some of these processes are shared with epithelial-mesenchymal transition induced by TGFβ or under hypoxia, particularly that associated with cancer progression.     

Synapse formation regulated by protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor T through interaction with cell adhesion molecules and Fyn

The receptor‐type protein tyrosine phosphatases (RPTPs) have been linked to signal transduction, cell adhesion, and neurite extension. PTPRT/RPTPρ is exclusively expressed in the central nervous system and regulates synapse formation by interacting with cell adhesion molecules and Fyn protein tyrosine kinase. Overexpression of PTPRT in cultured neurons increased the number of excitatory and inhibitory synapses by recruiting neuroligins that interact with PTPRT through their ecto‐domains. In contrast, knockdown of PTPRT inhibited synapse formation and withered dendrites. Incubation of cultured neurons with recombinant proteins containing the extracellular region of PTPRT reduced the number of synapses by inhibiting the interaction between ecto‐domains. Synapse formation by PTPRT was inhibited by phosphorylation of tyrosine 912 within the membrane–proximal catalytic domain of PTPRT by Fyn. This tyrosine phosphorylation reduced phosphatase activity of PTPRT and reinforced homophilic interactions of PTPRT, thereby preventing the heterophilic interaction between PTPRT and neuroligins. These results suggest that brain‐specific PTPRT regulates synapse formation through interaction with cell adhesion molecules, and this function and the phosphatase activity are attenuated through tyrosine phosphorylation by the synaptic tyrosine kinase Fyn.