B cell antigen presentation promotes Th2 responses and immunopathology during chronic allergic lung disease

Background

The role of B cells in allergic asthma remains undefined. One mechanism by which B cells clearly contribute to allergic disease is via the production of specific immunoglobulin, and especially IgE. Cognate interactions with specific T cells result in T cell help for B cells, resulting in differentiation and immunoglobulin secretion. Proximal to (and required for) T cell-dependent immunoglobulin production, however, is antigen presentation by B cells. While interaction with T cells clearly has implications for B cell function and differentiation, this study investigated the role that B cells have in shaping the T cell response during chronic allergic lung disease.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In these studies, we used a clinically relevant mouse model of chronic allergic lung disease to study the role of B cells and B cell antigen presentation in this disease. In these studies we present several novel findings: 1) Lung B cells from chronically allergen challenged mice up-regulated MHC II and costimulatory molecules CD40, CD80 and CD86. 2) Using in vitro studies, B cells from the lungs of allergen challenged mice could present antigen to T cells, as assessed by T cell proliferation and the preferential production of Th2 cytokines. 3) Following chronic allergen challenge, the levels of Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-5 in the lungs and airways were significantly attenuated in B cell −/− mice, relative to controls. 4) B cell driven Th2 responses and mucus hyper secretion in the lungs were dependent upon MHC II expression by B cells.

Conclusions/Significance

Collectively, these results provide evidence for antigen presentation as a novel mechanism by which B cells contribute to chronic allergic disease. These findings give new insight into the mechanisms by which B cells promote asthma and other chronic diseases.     

Selective autophagy of MHC-I promotes immune evasion of pancreatic cancer

ABSTRACT

Major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) is a key molecule in anti-tumor adaptive immunity. MHC-I is essential for endogenous antigen presentation by cancer cells and subsequent recognition and clearance by CD8⁺ T cells. Defects in MHC-I expression occur frequently in several cancers, leading to impaired antigen presentation, immune evasion and/or resistance to immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy. Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), a deadly malignancy with dismal patient prognosis, is resistant to ICB and shows frequent downregulation of MHC-I independent of genetic mutations abrogating MHC-I expression. Previously, we showed that PDAC cells exhibit elevated levels of autophagy and lysosomal biogenesis, which together support the survival and growth of PDAC tumors via both cell-autonomous and non-cell-autonomous mechanisms. In our recent study, we have identified NBR1-mediated selective macroautophagy/autophagy of MHC-I as a novel mechanism that facilitates immune evasion by PDAC cells. Importantly, autophagy or lysosome inhibition restores MHC-I expression, leading to enhanced anti-tumor T cell immunity and improved response to ICB in transplanted tumor models in syngeneic host mice. Our results highlight a previously unknown function of autophagy and the lysosome in regulation of immunogenicity in PDAC, and provide a novel therapeutic strategy for targeting this deadly disease.     

The autophagy machinery restrains iNKT cell activation through CD1D1 internalization

Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are innate T cells with powerful immune regulatory functions that recognize glycolipid antigens presented by the CD1D protein. While iNKT cell-activating glycolipids are currently being explored for their efficacy to improve immunotherapy against infectious diseases and cancer, little is known about the mechanisms that control CD1D antigen presentation and iNKT cell activation in vivo. CD1D molecules survey endocytic pathways to bind lipid antigens in MHC class II-containing compartments (MIICs) before recycling to the plasma membrane. Autophagosomes intersect with MIICs and autophagy-related proteins are known to support antigen loading for increased CD4⁺ T cell immunity. Here, we report that mice with dendritic cell (DC)-specific deletion of the essential autophagy gene Atg5 showed better CD1D1-restricted glycolipid presentation in vivo. These effects led to enhanced iNKT cell cytokine production upon antigen recognition and lower bacterial loads during Sphingomonas paucimobilis infection. Enhanced iNKT cell activation was independent of receptor-mediated glycolipid uptake or costimulatory signals. Instead, loss of Atg5 in DCs impaired clathrin-dependent internalization of CD1D1 molecules via the adaptor protein complex 2 (AP2) and, thus, increased surface expression of stimulatory CD1D1-glycolipid complexes. These findings indicate that the autophagic machinery assists in the recruitment of AP2 to CD1D1 molecules resulting in attenuated iNKT cell activation, in contrast to the supporting role of macroautophagy in CD4⁺ T cell stimulation.     

IL13 activates autophagy to regulate secretion in airway epithelial cells

Cytokine modulation of autophagy is increasingly recognized in disease pathogenesis, and current concepts suggest that type 1 cytokines activate autophagy, whereas type 2 cytokines are inhibitory. However, this paradigm derives primarily from studies of immune cells and is poorly characterized in tissue cells, including sentinel epithelial cells that regulate the immune response. In particular, the type 2 cytokine IL13 (interleukin 13) drives the formation of airway goblet cells that secrete excess mucus as a characteristic feature of airway disease, but whether this process is influenced by autophagy was undefined. Here we use a mouse model of airway disease in which IL33 (interleukin 33) stimulation leads to IL13-dependent formation of airway goblet cells as tracked by levels of mucin MUC5AC (mucin 5AC, oligomeric mucus/gel forming), and we show that these cells manifest a block in mucus secretion in autophagy gene Atg16l1-deficient mice compared to wild-type control mice. Similarly, primary-culture human tracheal epithelial cells treated with IL13 to stimulate mucus formation also exhibit a block in MUC5AC secretion in cells depleted of autophagy gene ATG5 (autophagy-related 5) or ATG14 (autophagy-related 14) compared to nondepleted control cells. Our findings indicate that autophagy is essential for airway mucus secretion in a type 2, IL13-dependent immune disease process and thereby provide a novel therapeutic strategy for attenuating airway obstruction in hypersecretory inflammatory diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and cystic fibrosis lung disease. Taken together, these observations suggest that the regulation of autophagy by Th2 cytokines is cell-context dependent.     

Evidence for effects of interleukin 4 (B cell stimulatory factor 1) on macrophages: enhancement of antigen presenting ability of bone marrow-derived macrophages

We have studied the effects of recombinant mouse interleukin 4 (IL 4) (previously known as B cell stimulatory factor 1) on the antigen-presenting ability of murine splenic B cells and bone marrow macrophages. Our assay is based on the induction of antigen-presenting ability in these cells after incubation with IL 4 for 24 hr. The presenting cells were then used to stimulate IL 2 production by antigen-specific, I-Ad-restricted T cell hybridomas, a response mainly dependent on the induction of Ia antigens. Consistent with our previously published data using partially purified natural IL 4, we show here that recombinant IL 4 (but not interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) or IL 1) induces antigen-presenting ability in B cells. Recombinant IL 4 was also found to induce antigen-presenting ability in a cloned, bone marrow derived-macrophage cell line (14M1.4), and in normal bone marrow-derived macrophages. These macrophage populations also respond to IFN-gamma showing enhanced antigen-presenting ability (mediated by increased Ia antigen expression). A small but significant increase in Ia antigen expression was also detected in 14M1.4 macrophages induced with IL 4. However, additional analysis suggested that the effect of IL 4 on 14M1.4 is different from that of IFN-gamma, because IL 4 (but not IFN-gamma) is able to maintain the viability and increase the size of and metabolic activity of bone marrow macrophages. However, IL 4 may not affect all macrophages because the macrophage cell line P388D1, which responds to IFN-gamma, failed to show enhanced antigen-presenting function after stimulation with IL 4. These observations indicate that IL 4, a lymphokine previously considered to be B cell lineage specific, has effects on macrophages and may be involved in their activation.     

Activation of MTOR in pulmonary epithelium promotes LPS-induced acute lung injury

MTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin [serine/threonine kinase]) plays a crucial role in many major cellular processes including metabolism, proliferation and macroautophagy/autophagy induction, and is also implicated in a growing number of proliferative and metabolic diseases. Both MTOR and autophagy have been suggested to be involved in lung disorders, however, little is known about the role of MTOR and autophagy in pulmonary epithelium in the context of acute lung injury (ALI). In the present study, we observed that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation induced MTOR phosphorylation and decreased the expression of MAP1LC3B/LC3B (microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 β)-II, a hallmark of autophagy, in mouse lung epithelium and in human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells. The activation of MTOR in HBE cells was mediated by TLR4 (toll-like receptor 4) signaling. Genetic knockdown of MTOR or overexpression of autophagy-related proteins significantly attenuated, whereas inhibition of autophagy further augmented, LPS-induced expression of IL6 (interleukin 6) and IL8, through NFKB signaling in HBE cells. Mice with specific knockdown of Mtor in bronchial or alveolar epithelial cells exhibited significantly attenuated airway inflammation, barrier disruption, and lung edema, and displayed prolonged survival in response to LPS exposure. Taken together, our results demonstrate that activation of MTOR in the epithelium promotes LPS-induced ALI, likely through downregulation of autophagy and the subsequent activation of NFKB. Thus, inhibition of MTOR in pulmonary epithelial cells may represent a novel therapeutic strategy for preventing ALI induced by certain bacteria.     

TNFAIP3 promotes survival of CD4 T cells by restricting MTOR and promoting autophagy

Autophagy plays important roles in metabolism, differentiation, and survival in T cells. TNFAIP3/A20 is a ubiquitin-editing enzyme that is thought to be a negative regulator of autophagy in cell lines. However, the role of TNFAIP3 in autophagy remains unclear. To determine whether TNFAIP3 regulates autophagy in CD4 T cells, we first analyzed Tnfaip3-deficient naïve CD4 T cells in vitro. We demonstrated that Tnfaip3-deficient CD4 T cells exhibited reduced MAP1LC3/LC3 (microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3) puncta formation, increased mitochondrial content, and exaggerated reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. These results indicate that TNFAIP3 promotes autophagy after T cell receptor (TCR) stimulation in CD4 T cells. We then investigated the mechanism by which TNFAIP3 promotes autophagy signaling. We found that TNFAIP3 bound to the MTOR (mechanistic target of rapamycin) complex and that Tnfaip3-deficient cells displayed enhanced ubiquitination of the MTOR complex and MTOR activity. To confirm the effects of enhanced MTOR activity in Tnfaip3-deficient cells, we analyzed cell survival following treatment with Torin1, an MTOR inhibitor. Tnfaip3-deficient CD4 T cells exhibited fewer cell numbers than the control cells in vitro and in vivo. In addition, the impaired survival of Tnfaip3-deficient cells was ameliorated with Torin1 treatment in vitro and in vivo. The effect of Torin1 was abolished by Atg5 deficiency. Thus, enhanced MTOR activity regulates the survival of Tnfaip3-deficient CD4 T cells. Taken together, our findings illustrate that TNFAIP3 restricts MTOR signaling and promotes autophagy, providing new insight into the manner in which MTOR and autophagy regulate survival in CD4 T cells.     

Tampering with cancer chemoresistance by targeting the TGM2-IL6-autophagy regulatory network

Macroautophagy/autophagy is a well-established process involved in maintaining cellular homeostasis, but its role in cancer is complex and even controversial. Many studies have reported a correlative relationship between increased autophagy and evolving cancer cells under stress conditions such as nutrient or oxygen deprivation; however, there has been a lack of a plausible mechanistic link to properly target the autophagy process in the context of this microenvironment. We recently unveiled a positive regulatory loop involving TGM2 (transglutaminase 2)-NFKB/NF-κB signaling, IL6 and autophagy in cancer using mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) as a model system. These pathways are functionally connected to each other, thereby promoting malignant B cell survival and leading to enhanced lymphoma progression both in mice and in patients. Disruption of this network could provide an opportunity to increase the efficacies of current therapies and to reduce MCL drug resistance.     

RUFY4: Immunity piggybacking on autophagy?

Although autophagy is a highly conserved mechanism among species and cell types, few are the molecules involved with the autophagic process that display cell- or tissue- specific expression. We have unraveled the positive regulatory role on autophagy of RUFY4 (RUN and FYVE domain containing 4), which is expressed in subsets of immune cells, including dendritic cells (DCs). DCs orchestrate the eradication of pathogens by coordinating the action of the different cell types involved in microbe recognition and destruction during the immune response. To fulfill this function, DC display particular regulation of their endocytic and autophagy pathways in response to the immune environment. Autophagy flux is downmodulated in DCs upon microbe sensing, but is remarkably augmented, when cells are differentiated in the presence of the pleiotropic cytokine IL4 (interleukin 4). From gene expression studies aimed at comparing the impact of IL4 on DC differentiation, we identified RUFY4, as a novel regulator that augments autophagy flux and, when overexpressed, induces drastic membrane redistribution and strongly tethers lysosomes. RUFY4 is therefore one of the few known positive regulators of autophagy that is expressed in a cell-specific manner or under specific immunological conditions associated with IL4 expression such as allergic asthma.     

Autophagy,citrullination and cancer

A cell needs to maintain a balance between biosynthesis and degradation of cellular components to maintain homeostasis. There are 2 pathways, the proteasome, which degrades short-lived proteins, and the autophagy/lysosomal pathway, which degrades long-lived proteins and organelles. Both of these pathways are also involved in antigen presentation or the effective delivery of peptides to MHC molecules for presentation to T cells. Autophagy (macroautophagy) is a key player in providing substantial sources of citrullinated peptides for loading onto MHC-II molecules to stimulate CD4⁺ T cell responses. Stressful conditions in the tumor microenvironment induce autophagy in cancer cells as a mechanism to promote their survival. We therefore investigated if citrullinated peptides could stimulate CD4⁺ T cell responses that would recognize these modifications produced during autophagy within tumor cells. Focusing on the intermediate filament protein VIM (vimentin), we generated citrullinated VIM peptides for immunization experiments in mice. Immunization with these peptides induced CD4⁺ T cells in response to autophagic tumor targets. Remarkably, a single immunization with modified peptide, up to 14 d after tumor implant, resulted in long-term survival in 60% to 90% of animals with no associated toxicity. These results show how CD4⁺ cells can mediate potent antitumor responses against modified self-epitopes presented on tumor cells, and they illustrate for the first time how the citrullinated peptides produced during autophagy may offer especially attractive vaccine targets for cancer therapy.     

Facilitated antigen presentation by B cells expressing IgD when responding T cells express IgD-receptors

In vitro studies have confirmed that cognate interactions between T and B cells are required to demonstrate enhanced helper activity using T cells with upregulated IgD-receptors (IgD-Rs). We studied the mechanism by which IgD-R+ T cells facilitate antibody responses by examining whether T cells also benefit from their expression of IgD-R. Experiments were designed to determine whether upregulation of IgD-R on T cells facilitates antigen presentation by IgD+ B cells. Goat Ig-primed splenic T cells from BALB/c mice were tested for their ability to respond to antigen-presenting B cells treated with goat anti-mouse (GAM) IgM or GAM IgD. T cell responses to GAM IgM and GAM IgD presented by B cells were significantly higher when goat Ig-primed cells were induced to express IgD-R by exposure to oligomeric IgD compared with goat Ig-primed control T cells. This effect was inhibited when monomeric IgD was added to the cultures. No differences in T and IgD-R+ T cell responses were seen using adherent cells as APCs. B cells from IgD-/- mice were also tested. Such B cells present antigen to IgD-R+ T cells without promoting enhanced responses compared with B cells from heterozygous IgD+/- mice. These studies suggest that IgD may play a costimulatory role during antigen presentation. We conclude that when T cells are induced to express IgD-R, these lectin-like receptors can ligate B cell membrane IgD during antigen presentation to facilitate responses of each of the cells engaged in cognate interaction, yielding enhanced antigen-specific T cell and B cell responses.     

Matrine induces Akt/mTOR signalling inhibition‐mediated autophagy and apoptosis in acute myeloid leukaemia cells

Pharmacological modulation of autophagy has been referred to as a promising therapeutic strategy for cancer. Matrine, a main alkaloid extracted from Sophora flavescens Ait, has antitumour activity against acute myelocytic leukaemia (AML). Whether autophagy is involved in antileukaemia activity of matrine remains unobvious. In this study, we demonstrated that matrine inhibited cell viability and colony formation via inducing apoptosis and autophagy in AML cell lines HL‐60, THP‐1 and C1498 as well as primary AML cells. Matrine promoted caspase‐3 and PARP cleavage dose‐dependently. Matrine up‐regulated the level of LC3‐II and down‐regulated the level of SQSTM1/p62 in a dose‐dependent way, indicating that autophagy should be implicated in anti‐AML effect of matrine. Furthermore, the autophagy inhibitor bafilomycin A1 relieved the cytotoxicity of matrine by blocking the autophagic flux, while the autophagy promoter rapamycin enhanced the cytotoxicity of matrine. Additionally, matrine inhibited the phosphorylation of Akt, mTOR and their downstream substrates p70S6K and 4EBP1, which led to the occurrence of autophagy. In vivo study demonstrated that autophagy was involved in antileukaemia effect of matrine in C57BL/6 mice bearing murine AML cell line C1498, and the survival curves showed that mice did benefit from treatment with matrine. Collectively, our findings indicate that matrine exerts antitumour effect through apoptosis and autophagy, and the latter one might be a potential therapeutic strategy for AML.     

The BiP Cochaperone ERdj4 Is Required for B Cell Development and Function

ERdj4 is a BiP cochaperone regulated by the unfolded protein response to facilitate degradation of unfolded and/or misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum. As the unfolded protein response plays a critical role in B cell maturation and antibody production, ERdj4 gene trap mice were generated to determine if this chaperone was required for B cell homeostasis. Homozygosity for the trapped allele resulted in hypomorphic expression of ERdj4 in bone marrow cells and abnormal development of hematopoietic lineages in the bone marrow. The number of myeloid cells was increased, while the number of erythroid and B lymphoid cells was reduced in ERdj4 gene trap mice compared to controls. An intrinsic B cell defect was identified that decreased survival of B cell precursors including large and small pre-B, and immature B cells. Consistent with impaired B lymphopoiesis, the number of mature follicular B cells was reduced in both the bone marrow and spleen of ERdj4 gene trap mice. Paradoxically, unchallenged ERdj4 gene trap mice showed non-specific hypergammaglobulinemia and gene trap B cells exhibited increased proliferation, survival and isotype switching in response to LPS stimulation. Although ERdj4 gene trap mice responded normally to T cell-independent antigen, they failed to mount a specific antibody response to T cell-dependent antigen in vivo. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that the chaperone activity of ERdj4 is required for survival of B cell progenitors and normal antibody production.     

IL‐7 suppresses macrophage autophagy and promotes liver pathology in Schistosoma japonicum‐infected mice

In schistosomiasis japonica and mansoni, parasite eggs trapped in host liver elicit severe liver granulomatous inflammation that subsequently leads to periportal fibrosis, portal hypertension, haemorrhage or even death. Macrophages are critical for granuloma formation and the development of liver fibrosis during schistosomiasis. However, whether the aberrant regulation of macrophage autophagy has an effect on the development of liver immunopathology in schistosomiasis remains to be elucidated. In this study, we showed that Schistosoma japonicum (S. japonicum) egg antigen (SEA)‐triggered macrophage autophagy limited the development of pathology in host liver. However, engagement of IL‐7 receptor (IL‐7R/CD127) on macrophages by S. japonicum infection‐induced IL‐7 significantly suppressed SEA‐triggered macrophage autophagy, which led to an enhanced liver pathology. In addition, anti‐IL‐7 neutralizing antibody or anti‐CD127 blocking antibody treatment increased macrophage autophagy and suppressed liver pathology. Finally, we demonstrated that IL‐7 protects macrophage against SEA‐induced autophagy through activation of AMP‐activated protein kinase (AMPK). Our study reveals a novel role for IL‐7 in macrophage autophagy and identifies AMPK as a novel downstream mediator of IL‐7‐IL‐7R signalling and suggests that manipulation of macrophage autophagy by targeting IL‐7‐IL‐7R signalling may have the potential to lead to improved treatment options for liver pathogenesis in schistosomiasis.     

Induction of autophagy through CLEC4E in combination with TLR4: an innovative strategy to restrict the survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

ABSTRACT

Host-directed therapies are gaining considerable impetus because of the emergence of drug-resistant strains of pathogens due to antibiotic therapy. Therefore, there is an urgent need to exploit alternative and novel strategies directed at host molecules to successfully restrict infections. The C-type lectin receptor CLEC4E and Toll-like receptor TLR4 expressed by host cells are among the first line of defense in encountering pathogens. Therefore, we exploited signaling of macrophages through CLEC4E in association with TLR4 agonists (C₄.T₄) to control the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). We observed significant improvement in host immunity and reduced bacterial load in the lungs of Mtb-infected mice and guinea pigs treated with C₄.T₄ agonists. Further, intracellular killing of Mtb was achieved with a 10-fold lower dose of isoniazid or rifampicin in conjunction with C₄.T₄ than the drugs alone. C₄.T₄ activated MYD88, PtdIns3K, STAT1 and RELA/NFKB, increased lysosome biogenesis, decreased Il10 and Il4 gene expression and enhanced macroautophagy/autophagy. Macrophages from autophagy-deficient (atg5 knockout or Becn1 knockdown) mice showed elevated survival of Mtb. The present findings also unveiled the novel role of CLEC4E in inducing autophagy through MYD88, which is required for control of Mtb growth. This study suggests a unique immunotherapeutic approach involving CLEC4E in conjunction with TLR4 to restrict the survival of Mtb through autophagy.     

The biological effects of syngeneic and allogeneic cytokine-expressing prophylactic whole cell vaccines and the influence of irradiation in a murine melanoma model

Allogeneic whole tumour cell vaccines are inherently practical compared with autologous vaccines. Cell lines are derived from allogeneic tumour, grown in bulk and then administered as a vaccine to the patient, following irradiation, which not only prevents any replication but also enhances antigen presentation. Protection is believed to occur through the presentation of antigens shared between the syngeneic and allogeneic tumours. Although cytokine-transfected tumour whole cell vaccines have been used clinically, little data is available comparing the effects of immunomodulatory cytokine-transfection directly on the same cells when used as both an allogeneic and autologous vaccine. To address this, weakly immunogenic B16-F10 (H-2^b) murine melanoma was transfected to secrete either GM-CSF, IL-4 or IL-7. Prophylactic vaccination of both syngeneic C57/BL6 (H-2^b) (B6) and allogeneic C3H/Hej (H-2^k) (C3H) mice showed the effects of transfected cytokine varied between models. Both GM-CSF and IL-7 significantly (P<0.05) increased the levels of protection within syngeneic B6 mice, but had a diminished effect (P>0.05) within C3H allogeneic mice. Allogeneic B16-F10 cells and syngeneic K1735 cells generated CTL against K1735 suggesting cross-reactive immunity. Using cells labeled with fluorescent dye we demonstrate that irradiated vaccines, of either syngeneic or allogeneic origin, appear to generate potent immune responses and fragments of either vaccine remain at the injection site for up to 9 days. This study shows that protection can be enhanced in vivo by using transfected cytokine, but suggests that irradiated whole cell vaccines, of either tissue-type, are rapidly processed. This leads to the conclusion that the cytokine effects are transient and thus transfection with cytokine may be of limited long-term use in situ.     

IL10 deficiency promotes alveolar enlargement and lymphoid dysmorphogenesis in the aged murine lung

The connection between aging‐related immune dysfunction and the lung manifestations of aging is poorly understood. A detailed characterization of the aging IL10‐deficient murine lung, a model of accelerated aging and frailty, reconciles features of both immunosenescence and lung aging in a coherent model. Airspace enlargement developed in the middle‐aged (12 months old) and aged (20–22 months old) IL10‐deficient lung punctuated by an expansion of macrophages and alveolar cell apoptosis. Compared to wild‐type (WT) controls, the IL10‐deficient lungs from young (4‐month‐old) mice showed increased oxidative stress which was enhanced in both genotypes by aging. Active caspase 3 staining was increased in the alveolar epithelial cells of aged WT and mutant lungs but was greater in the IL10‐deficient milieu. Lung macrophages were increased in the aged IL10‐deficient lungs with exuberant expression of MMP12. IL10 treatment of naïve and M2‐polarized bone marrow‐derived WT macrophages reduced MMP12 expression. Conditioned media studies demonstrated the secretome of aged mutant macrophages harbors reduced AECII prosurvival factors, specifically keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), promotes cell death, and reduces survival of primary alveolar epithelial cells. Compared to WT controls, aged IL10‐deficient mice have increased parenchymal lymphoid collections comprised of a reduced number of apoptotic cells and B cells. We establish that IL10 is a key modulator of airspace homeostasis and lymphoid morphogenesis in the aging lung enabling macrophage‐mediated alveolar epithelial cell survival and B‐cell survival within tertiary lymphoid structures.     

Antigen-specific B cells efficiently present low doses of antigen for induction of T cell proliferation

Previous experiments suggested a role for specific B cells in the induction of antigen (SRBC)-specific T cell proliferation. Two models were proposed: in the first, B cells directly presented antigen to T cells; alternatively, B cells secreted antibody, which opsonized antigen for presentation by macrophages. Experiments to distinguish between these possibilities are presented here. Three lines of evidence support the conclusion that antigen is presented directly by specific B cells. First, nonimmune splenic adherent cells (SAC), which efficiently induced proliferation of appropriately primed T cells to antigens such as OVA and GAT, were unable to induce SRBC-specific proliferation. Secondly, a slope analysis of the logarithmic plot of T cell proliferation vs the number of irradiated B cells suggested that two cells were limiting within the presenting population. The addition of IL 1 or SAC reduced the slope to 1 (although in serum-free conditions, the addition of IL 1, but not SAC, reduced the slope of the line). Specificity of the B cells for the antigen continued to be required in the presence of exogenous IL 1 or SAC. These results suggested that presentation by specific B cells and the amount of IL 1 were the limiting requirements for the induction of SRBC-specific T cell proliferation. The third line of evidence was the demonstration of a restricted interaction between T cells and B cells. The addition of irradiated, allogeneic SRBC-specific B cells to T cell lines and syngeneic SAC failed to support proliferative responses. We further show that a GAT-specific T cell clone was triggered to proliferate by either SAC or B cells, but that antigen-specific B cells were necessary at low doses of antigen. This finding is important in two respects. First, the T cell clone previously has been shown to act as a helper; secondly, when low doses of antigen are used, the requirement for priming of the B cells to the specific antigen is true for a soluble, as well as a particulate, antigen. We propose that at low (physiologic) doses of antigen, presentation to secondary T cells takes place mainly at the surface of antigen-specific B cells. At high doses of antigen,h presentation can also be accomplished by nonspecific cells such as other B cells, macrophages, or dendritic cells.     

CD19 and BAFF‐R can signal to promote B‐cell survival in the absence of Syk

The development and function of B lymphocytes is regulated by numerous signaling pathways, some emanating from the B‐cell antigen receptor (BCR). The spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk) plays a central role in the activation of the BCR, but less is known about its contribution to the survival and maintenance of mature B cells. We generated mice with an inducible and B‐cell‐specific deletion of the Syk gene and found that a considerable fraction of mature Syk‐negative B cells can survive in the periphery for an extended time. Syk‐negative B cells are defective in BCR, RP105 and CD38 signaling but still respond to an IL‐4, anti‐CD40, CpG or LPS stimulus. Our in vivo experiments show that Syk‐deficient B cells require BAFF receptor and CD19/PI3K signaling for their long‐term survival. These studies also shed a new light on the signals regulating the maintenance of the normal mature murine B‐cell pool.