Sleeping cluster patterns and retiring behaviors during winter in a free-ranging band of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey

Little information is available on the sleeping cluster pattern and retiring behavior of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana). Here, we provide observational data on a provisioned free-ranging band in the Qinling Mountains, central China. The results suggest that winter night activity of R. roxellana is a compromise between antipredator and thermoregulatory strategies and an adaptation to ecological conditions of their temperate habitat. Monkeys retired between 1804 and 1858 h in winter. In support of the antipredation hypothesis, all monkeys slept in trees at night, whereas 18.8% of individuals slept on the ground during the day. Also, the study band was more spatially cohesive at night than in daytime, with shorter distances between one-male units. Keeping warm is critical for survival in freezing temperatures. Monkeys often slept in the lower stratum of the tree canopy, avoiding the upper canopy where it is cold and windy. They formed larger sleeping clusters at night than in daytime. The most common types of night-sleeping clusters were adult females and juveniles, followed by adult females with other adult females. These accounted for 60.2% of the total records. The frequency of female–male clusters is two times greater, and that of adult male–juvenile clusters was four times less at night than during the day. The variations in composition of sleeping clusters suggest affiliative patterns at night-sleeping sites differ from those during the day.     

Activity rhythms and use of space of a group ofAotus azarae in Bolivia during the rainy season

A group ofAotus azarae living in an island forest in the Beni region of Bolivia was observed for ten nights during the rainy season of 1985. The three members of the group, an adult male, an adult female, and the young of the year, spent 49.4% of their time resting, 31.7% feeding and 19.8% locomoting. Activity started with low intensity vocalizations about 10–15 min after sunset, the animals returning to the sleeping site in the morning, 10 to 20 min before dawn. Feeding occurred mainly during the early hours of the night, and from 1:30 a.m. to 4:00 a.m. they spent most of their time at rest. The average distance travelled per night was 337.4 m, the monkeys locomoting mainly in the first half of the night. Of the whole of the island forest (0.33 ha), our monkeys used mainly an area of 0.18 ha.     

The influence of snowfall,temperature and social relationships on sleeping clusters of Japanese monkeys during winter in Shiga Heights

We studied Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata) of the Shiga A₁ troop at their sleeping sites in Shiga Heights, Japan, for 41 nights during 3 winters. Monkeys chose their sleeping sites in Japanese cedars and in deciduous broad-leaved forests on non-snowing nights and in Japanese cedar forests on snowing nights. We counted 399 sleeping clusters in which 2 or more monkeys remained in physical contact through the night and 43 solitary sleeping monkeys, though monkeys did not maintain physical contact with others in the daytime. We found 397 clusters on tree branches and 2 clusters on rocks. The mean size of huddling clusters was 3.06±1.22 SD. The cluster size (3.17±1.26 SD) at lower ambient temperatures between −7 and −4°C was larger than that at higher temperatures between −2 and 4°C (cluster size 2.88±1.13 SD). Most clusters were composed of kin. Females kept close to related females in the daytime and huddled with them at night. The highest-ranking male mainly huddled with his kin and his familiar females. Other males kept farther apart from each other in the daytime, probably to avoid social conflicts. Through cold winter nights, however, such males reduced inter-individual distances and huddled with other males. Japanese monkeys appear to recognize three types of inter-individual distances: an intimate distance less than 1 m, a personal distance of 1–3 m and a social distance of 3–20 m; they change their inter-individual distances according to social and ecological circumstances.     

Effects of reproductive state on vocalizations in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus)

Vocalizations and behavior of a group of 6 squirrel monkeys, 2 males and 4 females, were recorded during the nonbreeding and breeding seasons. Behavioral and physical criteria were used to determine the presence of estrus. During the breeding season the types of vocalizations uttered by estrous females changed, and the adult male increased his rate of vocalizing. Err vocalizations by estrous females were associated with increased following and initiation of affiliative behavior with the adult male, and may have functioned to facilitate these interactions. Errs appeared to be related to changes in female reproductive state rather than to the behavior of others. The adult male increased vocalizations associated with sexual and aggressive behavior (squeals and cackles), primarily in response to the estrous females' persistent initiation of interactions with him. We concluded that certain vocalizations in Saimiri reflected changes in the reproductive state of males and females, and functioned to mediate changes in social bonding during the breeding season.     

Sleeping Sites of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhinopithecus brelichi</Emphasis> at Yangaoping,Guizhou

Arboreal primates spend about half of their lives at sleeping sites; hence, selection of sleeping sites is crucial for individual survival, and data concerning them is important for conservation efforts. We collected data on sleeping sites for a group of the endangered snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus brelichi) at Yangaoping (27°58′N, 108°45′E) from January 2006 to December 2007. All sleeping sites were located in the mid-slope and in the shadow of ridges facing the northeast and southeast. The monkeys remained quiet while entering and occupying sleeping sites, and slept in evergreen species during the cold season (December–March). Trees in sleeping sites were similar in height and girth at breast height to those elsewhere, but some trees in lower areas were larger. The monkeys usually slept in close proximity to the last feeding spot, and their daily activities usually occurred around the sleeping site. Areas adjacent to sleeping sites were used more intensively than those not adjacent. Monkeys left the sleeping sites later in the morning in the cold season. These behavioral responses suggested that predation risk, thermoregulation, and climate stresses are the main determining factors in the selection of sleeping sites for this temperate monkey.     

Male behavior through the breeding season in Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis

The Bolivian squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis) is a seasonal breeder. Male squirrel monkeys show distinct morphological and behavioral changes prior to and during the breeding season. A “fatting syndrome” includes increased body weight, increased levels of androgens, and in the Bolivian subspecies, an increasingly active role in the social organization of the group. In this study, the behavior of ten adult male Bolivian squirrel monkeys was analyzed over a 6-month period prior to, during, and after the breeding season. Each was housed as the only adult male in a breeding unit with six to ten adult females and one juvenile male. Employing a principle components method, 11 behavioral clusters were generated from 27 responses. Their activity clusters were identified as follows: sexual activity that showed a peak around the time of peak conceptions; excitatory activity that was initially high but decreased throughout the breeding season; and maintenance activity that did not change across the breeding season. The changing social behavior of the male squirrel monkey parallels physiological changes and is correlated with changing androgen levels.     

Seasonal changes in food resource distribution and feeding sites selected by Japanese macaques on Koshima Islet,Japan

Feeding sites of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) change according to seasonal fluctuations in food resource distribution. To examine what characteristics of food items affect feeding site selection, I describe herein the seasonal changes in food items, feeding sites, and food resource distributions of this species. Feeding behavior of monkeys and their food resource distributions were investigated on Koshima Islet, southern Japan, for four study periods (i.e., seasons) in 2002. Monkeys showed large variations in their diet between seasons. To weigh the relative influence of the distribution and abundance of food items on feeding site selection in each season, multiple regression analyses were performed by 100 m × 100 m grid. In the analyses, feeding time was a dependent variable and the abundance of staple food items, for which feeding time was over 5% in each season, in each grid square was an independent variable. There was no correlation between the resource distribution of most food items and the distribution of feeding time by monkeys in each season. Monkeys spent more feeding time where multiple staple food items were available. Food items that affected feeding site selection by monkeys had the following three characteristics: (1) clumped distribution, (2) seasonal availability, and (3) fruit. This suggests that monkeys are likely to select feeding sites to consume food items whose availability is limited temporally and spatially, which may enable them to simultaneously use other widely distributed, abundant food items efficiently.     

Quantitative observations of grooming behavior in free-rangingMacaca mulatta

Quantitative methods of observation and analysis were used in a 12-month study of grooming behavior of free-rangingMacaca mulatta on La Cueva Island at La Parguera, Puerto Rico. Observations lasting 30–120 minutes were made from eight positions on the island at a standard time of day when monkeys were either feeding or resting. Two dependent variables were obtained: (1) the number of monkeys present in the observation area were noted by age and sex class at five-minute intervals throughout each observation, and (2) the frequency of grooming encounters was tabulated by the age and sex class(es) of groomer and recipient. These data were computed as grooms/hour/possible interacting combination of monkeys. Grooming frequencies were higher in non-feeding situations than when monkeys were feeding. The largest social group had the lowest mean grooming rates, while the smallest group had the highest grooming frequencies. More grooming occurred during the November-to-February mating season than at other periods of the year. Adult females were involved in over 60% of all grooming behavior, juveniles participated in 25% of the grooming, while adult males groomed females, primarily during the mating season, and rarely groomed other males or juveniles. Genealogical relationships, levels of group aggression and the feeding or resting context all influenced the frequency of grooming. This study provides support for the hypothesis that the basic social unit for rhesus macaques consists of a core of adult females with their juvenile and infant progeny.     

WEDDELL SEAL UNDERWATER CALLING RATES DURING THE WINTER AND SPRING NEAR MAWSON STATION, ANTARCTICA

Underwater vocalization monitoring and surveys, both on ice and underwater, were used to determine if Weddell seals ( Leptonychotes weddellii ) near Mawson Station, Antarctica, remain under the fast ice during winter within close range of breeding sites. Daytime and nighttime underwater calling rates were examined at seven breeding sites during austral winter and spring to identify seasonal and diel patterns. Seals rarely hauled out at any of the sites during winter, although all cohorts (adult males, females, and juveniles) were observed underwater and surfacing at breathing holes throughout winter (June–September) and spring (October–December). Seal vocalizations were recorded during each sampling session throughout the study ( n = 102 daytime at seven sites collectively, and n = 5 24-h samples at each of two sites). Mean daytime calling rate was low in mid-winter (July) (mean = 18.9 ± 7.1 calls/min) but increased monthly, reaching a peak during the breeding season (November) (mean = 62.6 ± 15.7 calls/min). Mean nighttime calling rate was high throughout the winter and early spring (July–October) with mean nocturnal calling rate in July (mean = 61.8 ± 35.1 calls/min) nearly equal to mean daytime calling rate in November (during 24-h daylight). Reduced vocal behavior during winter daylight periods may result from animals utilizing the limited daylight hours for nonvocal activities, possibly feeding.     

Effects of testosterone on song, aggression, and nestling feeding behavior in male great tits, Parus major

As outlined in the trade-off hypothesis of testosterone (T) secretion, fluctuations in T during the breeding season might reflect how males allocate their time and energy to competitive behaviors for mates and territories, associated with high T levels, and parental activities, associated with low T levels. In the present study, great tit, Parus major, males were implanted with T-filled or empty silastic capsules at the start of the breeding season and the behavior of these two male categories was compared during the entire breeding season. As a measure of competitive behavior we looked at song behavior and territorial responsiveness to a male decoy, during the three main stages of the breeding period (the egg-laying, incubation, and nestling stages). As a measure of parental care we looked at feeding behavior during the nestling stage. Our results only partly supported the trade-off hypothesis. T implants increased plasma androgen levels and enhanced spontaneous song activity and the production of aggressive vocalizations in response to a decoy. However, our results suggest that the degree of physical aggression might be less than fully coupled with T. First, approach to the decoy was not affected by the treatment. Second, although T levels are known to vary from high during egg laying to low while feeding young, control and T-treated males spent similar amounts of time close to the decoy in the three breeding stages. Our results thus suggest that vocal and physical aggression might be regulated differently in the great tit. Furthermore, in contrast with most other studies on temperate bird species but in agreement with a previous study on the great tit, T treatment did not affect male feeding rates. As the dose of T we used was lower than that typically used in other studies, we cannot at present completely exclude the possibility that the latter result reflects this lower dose of T rather than the species used.     

Field observations of mating,oviposition, and feeding behavior ofAnticarsia gemmatalis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in a soybean field

The temporal occurrence and frequency of mating, oviposition, and feeding of wild velvetbean caterpillar moths, Anticarsia gemmatalis,in a soybean field (Glycine max)were documented. Mating occurred predominately during the first 4 h after sunset and primarily on leaflet bottoms. Oviposition was concentrated within the first 6 hr after sunset. Eggs were laid singly, and in areas of high trichome density, on leaflets, pulvini, and petioles. Feeding occurred primarily at night, with most males feeding during the first half of the night and females during the second half. Males and females shared some food sites but others were visited strictly by males.     

Nocturnal hatching timing of mouthbrooding male cardinalfish Apogon niger

We observed hatching behavior by mouthbrooding males of the cardinalfish, Apogon niger. Mouthbrooding males showed no feeding activities at night, in spite of their nocturnal feeding habit. On the day of hatching, they released newly hatched larvae from their mouths on average 81 min after sunset. Semilunar hatching periodicity was significant, but its diel pattern was independent of the tidal rhythm. Sunset hatching may be advantageous not only to offspring because of their low predation risk but also to parental males because they can resume feeding sooner, thereby reducing the energetic loss from fasting while mouthbrooding. Received: August 22, 2000 / Revised: November 28, 2000 / Accepted: January 12, 2001     

The relation of stress hormone excretion to type A behavior and to health

The relation between catecholamine and cortisol excretion and Type A behavior, assessed using an 11-item self-report questionnaire based on the Jenkins Activity Survey, is examined in a Swedish sample of young adults (N = 149). Cluster analysis indicates that the items measure four aspects of Type A behavior: irritability, hurried behavior, work achievement, and competitiveness. These clusters are not correlated with measures of recent health care utilization. In both sexes, a higher total Type A behavior score is related to decreased daytime urine concentrations of norepinephrine and day and night concentrations of cortisol. In males, increased hurried behavior is related to lower night levels of norepinephrine; higher irritability and competitiveness predict lower night levels of epinephrine and cortisol and increased urine excretion rate. In females, higher irritability and lower competitiveness scores are related to increases in daytime urine excretion and slightly lower levels of cortisol. These results indicate that only certain aspects of the Type A syndrome are related to stress processes and imply that the behaviors serve to lower stress responses in early adulthood.     

Detection of earthworm prey by Ruff Philomachus pugnax

Ruff Philomachus pugnax staging in the Netherlands forage in agricultural grasslands, where they mainly eat earthworms (Lumbricidae). Food intake and the surface availability of earthworms were studied in dairy farmland of southwest Friesland in March–April 2011. Daily changes in earthworm availability were quantified by counting visible earthworms. No earthworms were seen on the surface during daytime, but their numbers sharply increased after sunset and remained high during the night. Nevertheless, intake rates of individual Ruff in different grasslands measured during daytime showed the typical Holling type II functional response relationship with the surfacing earthworm densities measured at night. Radiotagging of Ruff in spring 2007 revealed that most, if not all, feeding occurs during the day, with the Ruff assembling at shoreline roosts at night. This raises the question of why Ruff do not feed at night, if prey can be caught more easily than during daytime. In March–May 2013 we experimentally examined the visual and auditory sensory modalities used by Ruff to find and capture earthworms. Five males were kept in an indoor aviary and we recorded them individually foraging on trays with 10 earthworms mixed with soil under various standardized light and white noise conditions. The number of earthworms discovered and eaten by Ruff increased with light level, but only when white noise was played, suggesting that although they can detect earthworms by sight, Ruff also use auditory cues. We suggest that although surfacing numbers of earthworms are highest during the night, diurnal intake rates are probably sufficient to avoid nocturnal foraging on a resource that is more available but perhaps less detectable at that time.     

灰胸薮鹛鸣声及繁殖行为的初步研究

2005年5～8月、2006年1～2月、2008年10月在四川省老君山自然保护区对灰胸薮鹛(Liodchla omeiensis)的鸣声及繁殖行为进行了初步研究.在繁殖期和非繁殖期都能记录到的灰胸薮鹛鸣声可分为召唤、应答、觅食、采食、休息、飞行联络、报警叫声14种,仅在繁殖期能记录到的有占区、驱逐、逃避、求偶叫声12种.通过声谱分析获得了各种叫声的语谱图及其频谱特征.本文还对灰胸薮鹛繁殖期占区、求偶、交配、营巢、产卵和孵卵前3 d的行为进行了描述.     

Nocturnal sleeping habits of the Yunnan snub‐nosed monkey in Xiangguqing,China

Weather, predation, and social organization are hypothesized to influence sleeping habits of nonhuman primates at night. To investigate how the Yunnan snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) prepares for and behaves during cold nights in their harsh alpine forest habitat (above 3,000 m), we studied the sleeping habits of the 171 one‐male units (OMU) in one group for 12 months at Xiangguqing in the Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve, China. It took 20.2 min from the time the study group entered a sleeping site until they fell asleep. This duration was consistent over seasons. On average, sleeping time was 11.5 hr per night over the year. Seasonal mean lengths of sleeping time varied significantly, however, and ranged from 10 to 13 hr per night, correlating with night length. Two sleeping styles were distinguishable: solitary sleeping and huddled sleeping. That adult males in OMUs principally slept alone. This is likely to reflect night‐time guarding behavior. Female–juvenile and female–infant dyadic huddles were the most prevalent sleeping unit (42% of all observed data), and the monkeys employed female‐biased huddling during nocturnal sleep. Huddled sleeping group size showed significant seasonal variation, with the largest huddle (eight individuals) occurring in winter. Climate and social organization profoundly influence the nocturnal sleeping habits of R. bieti, while huddling behavior may help shield animals from cold nights and provide additional protection against predators. Am. J. Primatol. 72:1092–1099, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The social and reproductive behavior of the eyed flounder,Bothus ocellatus,with notes on the spawning ofBothus lunatus andBothus ellipticus

Synopsis Observations of the Caribbean eyed flounder,Bothus ocellatus, were made during two field trips to Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles (January 1990, and December 1990 – January 1991) at depths from 3 to 6 meters. Data were collected by six scuba divers during 54 dives totaling 70 hours. Three mating groups were observed, each consisted of a male and 1 to 6 females. Each female had a distinct subunit within the male's territory. Courtship activity began about one hour before sunset and continued until sunset, when the male retired for the night. Both males and females retired into the sand at locations outside their daytime territory. Every day, males attempted to mate with each female individually within their territory. Spawning began with the male moving under the female who was resting on the sandy bottom. The pair then made a slow upward rise approximately 15 to 75 cm above the substrate, which culminated in a release of a cloud of gametes.Bothus lunatus andBothus ellipticus exhibited similar social organization toB. ocellatus, but differences in the spawning rise were observed. Intraspecific agonistic behavior was observed within males ofB. ocellatus andB. ellipticus.Senior author     

Time Budget and Activity Patterns of Oncilla Cats (Leopardus tigrinus) in Captivity

Researchers have reported on the diet of Leopardus tigrinus and ecological aspects, but studies of behavior are scarce. The aims of this study were to describe the time budget and activity patterns of 10 captive Leopardus tigrinus individuals. The group had an activity budget of 66% resting, 20.66% moving, 6.08% vigilant, 3.12% feeding, and 4.14% other activities during 720 hr of observations. The activity budgets of the males and females did not differ significantly; however, males ate more than did females. The nonhuman animals spent more time resting during the day than during the night. Moving, socializing, maintenance, and vigilance showed statistically higher mean values at night. Group analysis of the temporal pattern of behavior showed bimodal peaks. Activity levels were high from 5 a.m. to 6 a.m. and decreased through the day only to peak again at 7 p.m. Stereotypic pacing peaked at dawn and at dusk. Patterns of vigilance, feeding, and maintenance were also determined for the group during a 24-hr period. These results may be useful for the development of management plans and effective conservation strategies for captive cats.     

Diel activity and reproductive territory of the Japanese bagrid catfish, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudobagrus ichikawai</Emphasis>

The endangered Japanese bagrid catfish, Pseudobagrus ichikawai, is typically nocturnal, emerging from shelters, such as crevices along the shore, at sunset to actively forage in open areas throughout the night with short-term movements of up to 40 m (except for mature males). Just before sunrise, individuals return to their shelters, from which they rarely emerge in daytime. Mature males (3 years-of-age or older) are found only in the vicinity of their shelters of during both day and night, which they defend with strong territorial behaviour. The restricted reproductive resources (shelters) probably severely limit the population size and reproduction in this species.     

Male-female interactions of sika deer (cervus nippon) in nara park through allogrooming during breeding and rutting seasons

The frequency and pattern of interactions between males and females of sika deerCervus nippon were surveyed in 3 sites of Nara Park, central Japan, mainly via observation of allogrooming frequency and aggressive behavior throughout the breeding and rutting seasons. In the breeding season, the Daibutsuden group contained several adult males while Ukimido and Hakuba groups contained only a few. Most allogroomers were adult and subadult females. Females groomed the same sex more than the opposite sex at Daibutsuden, but at the other 2 sites, there was no such difference. In general, male-female interactions through allogrooming frequencies in the breeding season were not significantly fewer than intra-sex interactions. Males that attacked females tended to be groomed by females in the breeding season. In the rutting season, all adult males identified in the breeding season were absent at the usual observation sites, and newly arrived males showed defensive and/or mating behaviors. Females groomed adult males in the rutting season regardless of group status or display of sexual interactions. This suggests that male-female allogrooming in the breeding season does not relate to mating in the following rutting season, but may reduce tension in the group during the current breeding season.