Patterns of evolution in Middle Pleistocene hominids

This paper reviews the chronology and morphological variability of Middle Pleistocene H. erectus. specimens. Functional complexes are delineated within the skull and dentition, and their total morphological patterns quantified using univariate and multivariate statistical analysis. Statistical distances are calculated between H. erectus and other hominid samples for each complex, compared to illustrate patterns of mosaic evolution within the skull and dentition of middle Quaternary hominids, and estimated evolution rates are derived. An attempt is made to relate the observed morphological patterns to ecological shifts by early hominid communities, and to assess their significance for hominid taxonomy.     

A hominid tooth from Bulgaria: the last pre-human hominid of continental Europe

A hominid upper premolar was discovered in the Azmaka quarry, near Chirpan (Bulgaria). The associated fauna, especially the co-occurrence of Choerolophodon and Anancus among the proboscideans, and Cremohipparion matthewi and Hippotherium brachypus among the hipparions, constrains the age of the locality to the second half of the middle Turolian (ca. 7 Ma), making it the latest pre-human hominid of continental Europe and Asia Minor. The available morphological and metric data are more similar to those of Ouranopithecus from the Vallesian of Greece than to those of the early to middle Turolian hominids of Turkey and Georgia, but the time gap speaks against a direct phyletic link, and Turolian migration from the east cannot be rejected.     

Cranial vault shape in fossil hominids: Fourier descriptors in norma lateralis

Two major views of human evolution have elicited considerable controversy. These are: [1] the “out of Africa” hypothesis and [2] the “multiregional” hypothesis. This paper is an attempt to try to reconcile these two scenarios using hominid cranial vault data. Elliptical Fourier functions (EFFs) were used to describe, in visual and numerical terms, the shape of the human cranial vault in norma lateralis.Using jpeg images, contours of the cranial vault of a large sample of hominid specimens were pre-processed in Photoshop CS and rotated in 2D space (positional-orientation) so that a line drawn from nasion to porion was horizontal. The cranial vault image was then digitized with 72 closely-spaced points and submitted to a specially written routine that computed EFFs normalized by scaling (size-standardization). This ensured that the representation was invariant with respect to starting point, size and orientation.Statistically significant differences were found between the H. sapiens sample and both the H. erectus and H. neanderthalensis samples. In contrast, there were no statistically significant differences between the H. erectus and H. neanderthalensis groups, leading to three conclusions: [1] the similarity in cranial vault shape between H. erectus and H. neanderthalensis suggests a single gradually evolving lineage; [2] The taxon H. heidelbergensis can be embedded into the H. erectus → H. neanderthalensis line; and [3] H. sapiens seems to be a separate evolutionary development and is considered here either as a separate species or as a possible example of an allopatric semispecies (Grant, 1977). The results here suggest that human evolution over the last 2 Ma may turn out to be neither totally multiregional or simply out of Africa but rather represents a considerably more complicated picture.     

Cranial thickening in an Australian hominid as a possible palaeoepidemiological indicator

This paper describes the cranial thickening of a late Pleistocene hominid (Willandra Lakes Hominid 50) from Australia. The unusual development of the vault structures in this individual has few, if any, equals among other hominids or more recent populations from around the world. The vault morphology is, therefore, described in terms of a pathologically related condition associated with the modern haemolytic blood dyscrasias, typical of sickle cell anamia and thalassemia. A possible palaeoepidemiology for these genetic adaptations among early Australasian populations is proposed together with a discussion of similar changes observed in the vault of the Singa calvarium from the Sudan. It is tentatively suggested that the cranial thickening of the Australian hominid has its origins in some form of genetic blood disease and that if this diagnosis is correct, this individual provides a rare glimpse of human biological adaptation in the late Upper Pleistocene.     

New discoveries and interpretations of hominid fossils and artifacts from Vindija Cave, Croatia

Beginning with excavations during the 1970s, Vindija Cave (Croatia) has yielded significant Middle and Upper Paleolithic fossil and archaeological finds. We report on seven recently identified hominid fossils, a newly associated partial hominid cranial vault from level G(3), nine possible bone retouchers, and a revised interpretation of the Mousterian artifact assemblage from the site. This new information reinforces our knowledge of the complex biocultural phenomena revealed in unit G and earlier deposits at Vindija. Six of the new hominid fossils derive from stratigraphic units G and I, while one lacks exact provenience. All specimens preserving diagnostic anatomy are from Neandertals. One of the postcranial remains, a radius fragment which exhibits Neandertal-like anatomy, comes from level G(1)and is congruent with the previously established association of Neandertals with an early Upper Paleolithic industry at the site. The partial cranial vault represents the most complete Neandertal from Vindija. The possible retouchers derive from unit G. Our analysis of these artifacts suggests that both percussion and pressure techniques may have been used by Neandertals in the final stage of tool production (retouching). This paper also presents a revision of the artifact analysis for late Mousterian level G(3). We separated raw materials into two main groups due to the differing ways that the materials fracture and the differing morphology of the debitage. The use of raw material in level G(3)is different from earlier Middle Paleolithic levels at Vindija. This indicates that the G(3)late Neandertals were making choices regarding source material somewhat more like the Upper Paleolithic people at the site. When interpreted within a larger regional framework, the Vindija archaeological and hominid fossil remains demonstrate a complex, mosaic pattern of biocultural change in the Late Pleistocene of south-central Europe.     

Paleolandscape variation and early pleistocene hominid activities: members 1 and 7, Olorgesailie formation, Kenya.

Paleolandscape research tests for variation in the spatial distribution of hominid artefacts and establishes the association of hominid activities with paleoenvironmental features over distances of 100s to 1000s of meters. This approach requires (1) precise definition of narrow stratigraphic intervals based on sedimentary criteria that can be documented over a broad area, and (2) excavation of these intervals in order to establish taphonomic and paleoenvironmental contexts. In this report, excavations of three target intervals within the early Pleistocene deposits (992 to 780 ka) of the Olorgesailie basin are described. Assessment of time-averaging and paleolandscape structure shows that each target interval represents a relatively brief period (相似文献   

Phyletic diversity and locomotion in primitive European hominids.

A major contribution of previous analyses of Miocene hominoid postcrania is the recognition of a great ape grade of locomotor morphology in the late Miocene. However, in the absence of a consideration of the taxonomic and phylogenetic implications of the specimens concerned, the importance of this conclusion remains unappreciated. This paper presents a revised view of the positional implications of late Miocene hominid fossils and considers some of the taxonomic and phyletic implications of these specimens. The taxonomic status of a number of large catarrhine specimens from Europe (attributed to Dryopithecus, Sivapithecus, Austriacopithecus, Paidopithex, Rudapithecus) is discussed. The functional and phyletic significance of this material reveals a complex pattern of behavioral and phyletic diversity among large-bodied catarrhines in Europe and suggests that this diversity evolved in situ from circum-Mediterranean middle Miocene ancestors.     

Pathological alterations in the archaic Homo sapiens cranium from Eliye Springs,Kenya

This paper reports on the results of a first computerized tomography (CT)-based study of the Middle Pleistocene matrix-filled skull KNM-ES 11693 from Eliye Springs at Lake Turkana. Ectocranially, the hominid cranium exhibits a remarkable enlargement of the vault symmetrical to the sagittal suture and a porotic surface covering most of the vault. CT analysis further revealed a strong thickening of the cranial vault as well as other relevant aspects. Differential diagnosis suggests that the changes of the Eliye Springs cranium were probably caused by chronic anemia in the childhood or youth of this individual.     

Taphonomy of the fossil hominid bones from the Acheulean site of Castel di Guido near Rome, Italy

Castel di Guido near Rome is one of the few open air Middle Pleistocene European sites that has yielded hominid skeletal remains associated with fossil fauna and Acheulean implements. The fossil hominid bones include two femoral shafts, respectively designated Castel di Guido-1 (CdG-1) and CdG-2, an occipital fragment (CdG-3), a right maxilla lacking teeth (CdG-4), a portion of right parietal (CdG-5), a right temporal (CdG-6), and a fragment of left parietal vault (CdG-7). CdG-1 through CdG-4 were collected in 1979-1982 on the surface, together with fossil fauna, where ploughing incised fossiliferous tuffaceous sands. Excavations conducted in the same area from 1980 to 1990 led to the discovery of CdG-5, CdG-6 and CdG-7 within the tuffaceous sands, which were shown to overlay a bone-bearing paleosurface, with abundant evidence of hominid activities. The Castel di Guido hominid assemblage poses intriguing taphonomic questions. The analysis of the physical evidence offered by the bone surfaces, reported in the present study, indicates that the hominid skeletal remains were heavily fragmented before fossilization and exposed to carnivores and rodents, as well as to trampling and/or friction in abrasive sediment. Although definitive conclusions cannot be reached on the basis of the available evidence, it is possible that clusters of incisions localized on specific regions of the Castel di Guido fossil hominid bones might reflect deliberate human manipulations.     

Hominid cranial capacity change through time: a darwinian process

The course of change in hominid cranial capacity through time is described for the period 3200-15 ky B P. Both analysis of variance and fitting of regression curves performed on a sample of 144 specimens point towards a smooth gradual change at an increasing rate. Residual variances around empirical and theoretical lines of regression are smaller than the total intraspecific variance in modernH sapiens testifying as to the goodness of fit. It is postulated that the gradual nature of the evolutionary process results from the operation of a typical darwinian mechanism of directional selection. Rates of selection themselves undergo increase as a result of self-amplifying nature of hominid evolution resulting from positive feedbacks between evolving elements of the bio-cultural complex. Therefore the theoretical regression is of a doubly exponential form: exponential increase of cranial capacity with time at rates that themselves increase exponentially. As the change is gradual and variance around the line of regression does not exceed that observed within a single species from the viewpoint of cranial capacity hominid evolution may be described as a continuous series of ill-separated chronospecies.     

Thickness distribution of the occipital bone--a new approach based on CT-data of modern humans and OH 9 (H. ergaster)

A new approach for the analysis of cranial bone thickness is introduced. The study focuses on the occipital bone of modern humans and of a 1.25 Myr-old H. Ergaster/erectus specimen from Olduvai Gorge (OH 9). A semiautomatic algorithm detects a multitude of thicknesses from CT-data of the investigated bones. We find that every bone is characterized by its own distribution pattern of cranial thickness, which is then analyzed statistically. The results demonstrate that the thickness distribution of the occipital bone of OH 9 is within the normal range of the H. sapiens sample (which itself shows a remarkably high variance). This contributes to a further analysis of phyletic differences of hominid morphology by including distribution patterns of thickness combined with aspects of functional anatomy.     

Endocranial hyperostosis in Sangiran 2, Gibraltar 1, and Shanidar 5

Sangiran hominid 2 (S-2), Gibraltar hominid 1 (G-1), and Shanidar hominid 5 (SH-5) exhibit previously undescribed bilateral, paramedian hyperostosis of the endocranial frontal squama that spares the frontal crest, sagittal sinus, and ectocranial surface. The hyperostosis is localized to the frontal (usually the middle third) and parietal and is consistent with a diagnosis of hyperostosis calvariae interna (HCI), inclusive of hyperostosis frontalis interna. The hyperostosis in these specimens is compared to fossil hominids from Indonesia and Europe and to modern human cases of HCI. The three cases of HCI reported here document the existence and frequency of HCI in fossil hominids and push the antiquity of the disease back to nearly 1.5 millin years. The relatively great incidence of HCI in fossil hominids adds another confounding factor to the problematical issue of the taxonomic significance of cranial vault thickness. Am J Phys Anthropol 102:111–122. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Scale and squamation character polarity and phyletic assessment in the family Cichlidae

Scale and squamation characters have proved to be useful in investigating phyletic relationships in the family Cichlidae. To provide a sound basis for a cladistic analysis the plesiomorphic states have to be determined. This has been done for the family as a whole as well as for some phyletic lineages. Based on those characters the phylogeny within the family has been investigated.     

Position chronologique des sites de l’Homme moderne en Chine d’après la datation U-Th

The origin and evolution of modern Homo sapiens has been the subject of an intensive debate between exponents of two competing hypotheses, multiregional origins and “recent out of Africa”. This paper presents a synthesis of the chronological studies on seven hominid sites in China based on the U-series dating, five of them of intercalated speleothem calcites and other two of fossil materials. The results show that modern humans were present in China about 100 ka ago, much earlier than previously estimated, and that the so-called “temporal gap” of human presence in China between 40 and 100 ka is most probably nothing but an artifact caused by systematic errors of the dating methods. Further multidisciplinary studies on hominid sites in China may provide important evidence for resolving the hotly debated issues concerning the origin of modern humans.     

Species,genera, and phylogenetic structure in the human fossil record: a modest proposal

Because of the greater morphological distances among them, genera should be more robustly recognizable in the fossil record than species are. But there are clearly upper as well as lower bounds to their species inclusivity. Currently, the vast majority of fossils composing the large and rapidly expanding paleoanthropological record are crammed into one of two genera (Australopithecus vs Homo), expanding the latter, especially, far beyond any reasonable morphological or phylogenetic limits. This excessive inclusivity obscures both diversity and the complexities of phylogenetic structure within the hominid family.     

The dating of Lantian man and his significance for analyzing trends in human evolution

The Lantian fossil hominid cranium from Southern Shensi Province, China, provides the earliest record of Homo erectus in northern east Asia, and is morphologically the most primitive specimen in the entire world. Importantly, the Kungwangling Lantian cranium (calvarium plus face), with associated stone tools in good geologic and paleontological context, is demonstrably both earlier and more primitive than the Choukoutien I remains. Faunal and palynological evidence support a mid-Mosbachium equivalent age (some 700,000 years). These facts are not recognized in the original Chinese reports. The Chenchiawo Lantian mandible, like the Choukoutien I remains, is attributable to the Holstein-equivalent in China (some 300,000 years ago), and therefore should no longer be temporally associated with the Kungwangling Lantian cranium. However, that the mandible may be morphologically associated with either calls attention to the relative independence of the mandible in human evolution. A comparative study of some modern Mongoloid populations in which very large mandibles may or may not be associated with a scaphoid keel or sagittal elevation depending upon the size and shape of the cranium demonstrates the relative autonomy of the mandible. Continuing selection pressure for a masticatory complex with large jaws provides another point of continuity between East Asian fossil and modern Mongoloid hunting populations such as Eskimos and Aleuts. A number of morphological features of the cranium, especially vault thickness, cranial capacity and reinforcement system, conform to expectation and confirm a general trend of reduction in vault thickness and reinforcement system with increase in cranial capacity over time within the single human species.