Multiplicity of the interactions of Wnt proteins and their receptors

Wnts are secreted proteins that are essential for a wide array of developmental and physiological processes. They signal across the plasma membranes by interacting with serpentine receptors of the Frizzled (Fz) family and members of the low-density-lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP) family. Recent advances in the Wnt signaling field have revealed that Wnt-unrelated proteins activate or suppress Wnt signaling by binding to Fzs or LRP5/6 and that atypical receptor tyrosine kinases mediate Wnt signaling independently of Fz and/or function as a Fz co-receptor. This review highlights recent progress in our understanding of the multiplicity of Wnts and their receptors. We discuss how the interaction between the ligands and receptors activate distinct intracellular signaling pathways. We also discuss how intracellular trafficking of Wnt signaling components can regulate the sensitivity of cells to Wnts.     

A novel mechanism for Wnt activation of canonical signaling through the LRP6 receptor

LDL receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6) is a Wnt coreceptor in the canonical signaling pathway, which plays essential roles in embryonic development. We demonstrate here that wild-type LRP6 forms an inactive dimer through interactions mediated by epidermal growth factor repeat regions within the extracellular domain. A truncated LRP6 comprising its transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains is expressed as a constitutively active monomer whose signaling ability is inhibited by forced dimerization. Conversely, Wnts are shown to activate canonical signaling through LRP6 by inducing an intracellular conformational switch which relieves allosteric inhibition imposed on the intracellular domains. Thus, Wnt canonical signaling through LRP6 establishes a novel mechanism for receptor activation which is opposite to the general paradigm of ligand-induced receptor oligomerization.     

Tyrosine-based Signal Mediates LRP6 Receptor Endocytosis and Desensitization of Wnt/β-Catenin Pathway Signaling

Wnt/β-catenin signaling orchestrates a number of critical events including cell growth, differentiation, and cell survival during development. Misregulation of this pathway leads to various human diseases, specifically cancers. Endocytosis and phosphorylation of the LDL receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6), an essential co-receptor for Wnt/β-catenin signaling, play a vital role in mediating Wnt/β-catenin signal transduction. However, its regulatory mechanism is not fully understood. In this study, we define the mechanisms by which LRP6 endocytic trafficking regulates Wnt/β-catenin signaling activation. We show that LRP6 mutant with defective tyrosine-based signal in its cytoplasmic tail has an increased cell surface distribution and decreased endocytosis rate. These changes in LRP6 endocytosis coincide with an increased distribution to caveolae, increased phosphorylation, and enhanced Wnt/β-catenin signaling. We further demonstrate that treatment of Wnt3a ligands or blocking the clathrin-mediated endocytosis of LRP6 leads to a redistribution of wild-type receptor to lipid rafts. The LRP6 tyrosine mutant also exhibited an increase in signaling activation in response to Wnt3a stimulation when compared with wild-type LRP6, and this activation is suppressed when caveolae-mediated endocytosis is blocked. Our results reveal molecular mechanisms by which LRP6 endocytosis routes regulate its phosphorylation and the strength of Wnt/β-catenin signaling, and have implications on how this pathway can be modulated in human diseases.     

Regulated proteolytic processing of LRP6 results in release of its intracellular domain

Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6) is a member of low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) family which cooperates with Frizzled receptors to transduce the canonical Wnt signal. As a critical component of the canonical Wnt pathway, LRP6 is essential for appropriate brain development, however, the mechanism by which LRP6 facilitates Wnt canonical signaling has not been fully elucidated. Interestingly, LRP6 which lacks its extracellular domain can constitutively activate TCF/LEF and potentiate the Wnt signal. Further, the free cytosolic tail of LRP6 interacts directly with glycogen synthase kinase (GSK3) and inhibits GSK3's activity in the Wnt canonical pathway which results in increased TCF/LEF activation. However, whether these truncated forms of LRP6 are physiologically relevant is unclear. Recent studies have shown that other members of the LDLR family undergo gamma-secretase dependent regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP). Using independent experimental approaches, we show that LRP6 also undergoes RIP. The extracellular domain of LRP6 is shed and released into the surrounding milieu and the cytoplasmic tail is cleaved by gamma-secretase-like activity to release the intracellular domain. Furthermore, protein kinase C, Wnt 3a and Dickkopf-1 modulate this process. These findings suggest a novel mechanism for LRP6 in Wnt signaling: induction of ectodomain shedding of LRP6, followed by the gamma-secretase involved proteolytic releasing its intracellular domain (ICD) which then binds to GSK3 inhibiting its activity and thus activates the canonical Wnt signaling pathway.     

Wnt signals across the plasma membrane to activate the beta-catenin pathway by forming oligomers containing its receptors, Frizzled and LRP

Wnt-induced signaling via beta-catenin plays crucial roles in animal development and tumorigenesis. Both a seven-transmembrane protein in the Frizzled family and a single transmembrane protein in the LRP family (LDL-receptor-related protein 5/6 or Arrow) are essential for efficiently transducing a signal from Wnt, an extracellular ligand, to an intracellular pathway that stabilizes beta-catenin by interfering with its rate of destruction. However, the molecular mechanism by which these two types of membrane receptors synergize to transmit the Wnt signal is not known. We have used mutant and chimeric forms of Frizzled, LRP and Wnt proteins, small inhibitory RNAs, and assays for beta-catenin-mediated signaling and protein localization in Drosophila S2 cells and mammalian 293 cells to study transmission of a Wnt signal across the plasma membrane. Our findings are consistent with a mechanism by which Wnt protein binds to the extracellular domains of both LRP and Frizzled receptors, forming membrane-associated hetero-oligomers that interact with both Disheveled (via the intracellular portions of Frizzled) and Axin (via the intracellular domain of LRP). This model takes into account several observations reported here: the identification of intracellular residues of Frizzled required for beta-catenin signaling and for recruitment of Dvl to the plasma membrane; evidence that Wnt3A binds to the ectodomains of LRP and Frizzled; and demonstrations that a requirement for Wnt ligand can be abrogated by chimeric receptors that allow formation of Frizzled-LRP hetero-oligomers. In addition, the beta-catenin signaling mediated by ectopic expression of LRP is not dependent on Disheveled or Wnt, but can also be augmented by oligomerization of LRP receptors.     

Wnt signal amplification via activity, cooperativity, and regulation of multiple intracellular PPPSP motifs in the Wnt co-receptor LRP6

Low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6) and its homologue LRP5 serve as Wnt co-receptors that are essential for the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway. Wnt activation of LRP6 leads to recruitment of the scaffolding protein Axin and inhibition of Axin-mediated phosphorylation/destruction of beta-catenin. We showed that five conserved PPPSP motifs in the LRP6 intracellular domain are required for LRP6 function, and mutation of these motifs together abolishes LRP6 signaling activity. We further showed that Wnt induces the phosphorylation of a prototypic PPPSP motif, which provides a docking site for Axin and is sufficient to transfer signaling activity to a heterologous receptor. However, the activity, regulation, and functionality of multiple PPPSP motifs in LRP6 have not been characterized. Here we provide a comprehensive analysis of all five PPPSP motifs in LRP6. We define the core amino acid residues of a prototypic PPPSP motif via alanine scanning mutagenesis and demonstrate that each of the five PPPSP motifs exhibits signaling and Axin binding activity in isolation. We generated two novel phosphorylation-specific antibodies to additional PPPSP motifs and show that Wnt induces phosphorylation of these motifs in the endogenous LRP6 through glycogen synthase kinase 3. Finally, we uncover the critical cooperativity of PPPSP motifs in the full-length LRP6 by demonstrating that LRP6 mutants lacking a single PPPSP motif display compromised function, whereas LRP6 mutants lacking two of the five PPPSP motifs are mostly inactive. This cooperativity appears to reflect the ability of PPPSP motifs to promote the phosphorylation of one another and to interact with Axin synergistically. These results establish the critical role and a common phosphorylation/activation mechanism for the PPPSP motifs in LRP6 and suggest that the conserved multiplicity and cooperativity of the PPPSP motifs represents a built-in amplifier for Wnt signaling by the LRP6 family of receptors.     

Disruption of Drosophila melanogaster Lipid Metabolism Genes Causes Tissue Overgrowth Associated with Altered Developmental Signaling

Developmental patterning requires the precise interplay of numerous intercellular signaling pathways to ensure that cells are properly specified during tissue formation and organogenesis. The spatiotemporal function of many developmental pathways is strongly influenced by the biosynthesis and intracellular trafficking of signaling components. Receptors and ligands must be trafficked to the cell surface where they interact, and their subsequent endocytic internalization and endosomal trafficking is critical for both signal propagation and its down-modulation. In a forward genetic screen for mutations that alter intracellular Notch receptor trafficking in Drosophila melanogaster, we recovered mutants that disrupt genes encoding serine palmitoyltransferase and acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Both mutants cause Notch, Wingless, the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EFGR), and Patched to accumulate abnormally in endosomal compartments. In mosaic animals, mutant tissues exhibit an unusual non-cell-autonomous effect whereby mutant cells are functionally rescued by secreted activities emanating from adjacent wildtype tissue. Strikingly, both mutants display prominent tissue overgrowth phenotypes that are partially attributable to altered Notch and Wnt signaling. Our analysis of the mutants demonstrates genetic links between abnormal lipid metabolism, perturbations in developmental signaling, and aberrant cell proliferation.     

Phosphorylation of PPP(S/T)P motif of the free LRP6 intracellular domain is not required to activate the Wnt/β‐catenin pathway and attenuate GSK3β activity

The canonical Wnt/β‐catenin signaling pathway plays a critical role in numerous physiological and pathological processes. LRP6 is an essential co‐receptor for Wnt/β‐catenin signaling; as transduction of the Wnt signal is strongly dependent upon GSK3β‐mediated phosphorylation of multiple PPP(S/T)P motifs within the membrane‐anchored LRP6 intracellular domain. Previously, we showed that the free LRP6 intracellular domain (LRP6‐ICD) can activate the Wnt/β‐catenin pathway in a β‐catenin and TCF/LEF‐1 dependent manner, as well as interact with and attenuate GSK3β activity. However, it is unknown if the ability of LRP6‐ICD to attenuate GSK3β activity and modulate activation of the Wnt/β‐catenin pathway requires phosphorylation of the LRP6‐ICD PPP(S/T)P motifs, in a manner similar to the membrane‐anchored LRP6 intracellular domain. Here we provide evidence that the LRP6‐ICD does not have to be phosphorylated at its PPP(S/T)P motif by GSK3β to stabilize endogenous cytosolic β‐catenin resulting in activation of TCF/LEF‐1 and the Wnt/β‐catenin pathway. LRP6‐ICD and a mutant in which all 5 PPP(S/T)P motifs were changed to PPP(A)P motifs equivalently interacted with and attenuated GSK3β activity in vitro, and both constructs inhibited the in situ GSK3β‐mediated phosphorylation of β‐catenin and tau to the same extent. These data indicate that the LRP6‐ICD attenuates GSK3β activity similar to other GSK3β binding proteins, and is not a result of it being a GSK3β substrate. Our findings suggest the functional and regulatory mechanisms governing the free LRP6‐ICD may be distinct from membrane‐anchored LRP6, and that release of the LRP6‐ICD may provide a complimentary signaling cascade capable of modulating Wnt‐dependent gene expression. J. Cell. Biochem. 108: 886–895, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Wnt/Wingless signaling through β-catenin requires the function of both LRP/Arrow and frizzled classes of receptors

Background

Wnt/Wingless (Wg) signals are transduced by seven-transmembrane Frizzleds (Fzs) and the single-transmembrane LDL-receptor-related proteins 5 or 6 (LRP5/6) or Arrow. The aminotermini of LRP and Fz were reported to associate only in the presence of Wnt, implying that Wnt ligands form a trimeric complex with two different receptors. However, it was recently reported that LRPs activate the Wnt/β-catenin pathway by binding to Axin in a Dishevelled – independent manner, while Fzs transduce Wnt signals through Dishevelled to stabilize β-catenin. Thus, it is possible that Wnt proteins form separate complexes with Fzs and LRPs, transducing Wnt signals separately, but converging downstream in the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. The question then arises whether both receptors are absolutely required to transduce Wnt signals.

Results

We have established a sensitive luciferase reporter assay in Drosophila S2 cells to determine the level of Wg – stimulated signaling. We demonstrate here that Wg can synergize with DFz2 and function cooperatively with LRP to activate the β-catenin/Armadillo signaling pathway. Double-strand RNA interference that disrupts the synthesis of either receptor type dramatically impairs Wg signaling activity. Importantly, the pronounced synergistic effect of adding Wg and DFz2 is dependent on Arrow and Dishevelled. The synergy requires the cysteine-rich extracellular domain of DFz2, but not its carboxyterminus. Finally, mammalian LRP6 and its activated forms, which lack most of the extracellular domain of the protein, can activate the Wg signaling pathway and cooperate with Wg and DFz2 in S2 cells. We also show that the aminoterminus of LRP/Arr is required for the synergy between Wg and DFz2.

Conclusion

Our study indicates that Wg signal transduction in S2 cells depends on the function of both LRPs and DFz2, and the results are consistent with the proposal that Wnt/Wg signals through the aminoterminal domains of its dual receptors, activating target genes through Dishevelled.

     

Modulation of LRP6-mediated Wnt signaling by molecular chaperone Mesd

LRP6 is a Wnt coreceptor at the cell surface. Here, we report that a specialized molecular chaperone Mesd modulates LRP6-mediated Wnt signaling and how different LRP6 mutants exhibit differential effects on Wnt signaling. We found that overexpression of increasing amounts of the full-length LRP6 enhances Wnt signaling in a dose dependent manner only in the presence of a co-expression of the molecular chaperone Mesd, which promotes LRP6 folding and maturation to the cell surface. We also demonstrated that LRP6 mutant lacking the intracellular domain impedes LRP6 cell surface expression and Wnt signaling in a dominant-negative fashion by sequestering Mesd from promoting LRP6 folding. Our results present novel mechanisms by which Mesd and LRP6 modulate Wnt signaling.     

A screen for mutations that suppress the phenotype of Drosophila armadillo, the beta-catenin homolog

During development signaling pathways coordinate cell fates and regulate the choice between cell survival or programmed cell death. The well-conserved Wingless/Wnt pathway is required for many developmental decisions in all animals. One transducer of the Wingless/Wnt signal is Armadillo/beta-catenin. Drosophila Armadillo not only transduces Wingless signal, but also acts in cell-cell adhesion via its role in the epithelial adherens junction. While many components of both the Wingless/Wnt signaling pathway and adherens junctions are known, both processes are complex, suggesting that unknown components influence signaling and junctions. We carried out a genetic modifier screen to identify some of these components by screening for mutations that can suppress the armadillo mutant phenotype. We identified 12 regions of the genome that have this property. From these regions and from additional candidate genes tested we identified four genes that suppress arm: dTCF, puckered, head involution defective (hid), and Dpresenilin. We further investigated the interaction with hid, a known regulator of programmed cell death. Our data suggest that Wg signaling modulates Hid activity and that Hid regulates programmed cell death in a dose-sensitive fashion.     

Endocytic trafficking of Wingless and its receptors, Arrow and DFrizzled-2, in the Drosophila wing

During animal development, Wnt/Wingless (Wg) signaling is required for the patterning of multiple tissues. While insufficient signal transduction is detrimental to normal development, ectopic activation of the pathway can be just as devastating. Thus, numerous controls exist to precisely regulate Wg signaling levels. Endocytic trafficking of pathway components has recently been proposed as one such control mechanism. Here, we characterize the vesicular trafficking of Wg and its receptors, Arrow and DFrizzled-2 (DFz2), and investigate whether trafficking is important to regulate Wg signaling during dorsoventral patterning of the larval wing. We demonstrate a role for Arrow and DFz2 in Wg internalization. Subsequently, Wg, Arrow and DFz2 are trafficked through the endocytic pathway to the lysosome, where they are degraded in a hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate (Hrs)-dependent manner. Surprisingly, we find that Wg signaling is not attenuated by lysosomal targeting in the wing disc. Rather, we suggest that signaling is dampened intracellularly at an earlier trafficking step. This is in contrast to patterning of the embryonic epidermis, where lysosomal targeting is required to restrict the range of Wg signaling. Thus, signal modulation by endocytic routing will depend on the tissue to be patterned and the goals during that patterning event.     

Transmembrane protein 97 exhibits oncogenic properties via enhancing LRP6-mediated Wnt signaling in breast cancer

Upregulation of transmembrane protein 97 (TMEM97) has been associated with progression and poor outcome in multiple human cancers, including breast cancer. Recent studies suggest that TMEM97 may be involved in the activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. However, the molecular mechanism of TMEM97 action on Wnt/β-catenin signaling is completely unclear. In the current study, TMEM97 was identified as an LRP6-interacting protein. TMEM97 could interact with LRP6 intracellular domain and enhance LRP6-mediated Wnt signaling in a CK1δ/ε-dependent manner. The binding of TMEM97 to LRP6 facilitated the recruitment of CK1δ/ε to LRP6 complex, resulting in LRP6 phosphorylation at Ser 1490 and the stabilization of β-catenin. In breast cancer cells, knockout of TMEM97 attenuated the Wnt/β-catenin signaling cascade via regulating LRP6 phosphorylation, leading to a decrease in the expression of Wnt target genes AXIN2, LEF1, and survivin. TMEM97 deficiency also suppressed cell viability, proliferation, colony formation, migration, invasion, and stemness properties in breast cancer cells. Importantly, TMEM97 knockout suppressed tumor growth through downregulating the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in a breast cancer xenograft model. Taken together, our results revealed that TMEM97 is a positive modulator of canonical Wnt signaling. TMEM97-mediated Wnt signaling is implicated in the tumorigenesis of breast cancer, and its targeted inhibition may be a promising therapeutic strategy for breast cancer.Subject terms: Protein-protein interaction networks, Breast cancer     

Wg/Wnt signal can be transmitted through arrow/LRP5,6 and Axin independently of Zw3/Gsk3beta activity

Activation of the Wnt signaling cascade provides key signals during development and in disease. Here we provide evidence, by designing a Wnt receptor with ligand-independent signaling activity, that physical proximity of Arrow (LRP) to the Wnt receptor Frizzled-2 triggers the intracellular signaling cascade. We have uncovered a branch of the Wnt pathway in which Armadillo activity is regulated concomitantly with the levels of Axin protein. The intracellular pathway bypasses Gsk3beta/Zw3, the kinase normally required for controlling beta-catenin/Armadillo levels, suggesting that modulated degradation of Armadillo is not required for Wnt signaling. We propose that Arrow (LRP) recruits Axin to the membrane, and that this interaction leads to Axin degradation. As a consequence, Armadillo is no longer bound by Axin, resulting in nuclear signaling by Armadillo.     

In silico discovery of quinoxaline derivatives as novel LRP5/6-sclerostin interaction inhibitors

The Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is a key regulator of bone homeostasis. Sclerostin act as an extracellular inhibitor of canonical Wnt signaling through high-affinity binding to the Wnt co-receptor LRP5/6. Disruption of the interaction between LRP5/6 and sclerostin has been recognized as a therapeutic target for osteoporosis. We identified a quinoxaline moiety as a new small-molecule inhibitor of the LRP5/6-sclerostin interaction through pharmacophore-based virtual screening, docking simulations, and in vitro assays. Structure-activity relationship studies and binding mode hypotheses were used to optimize the scaffold and yield the compound BMD4503-2, which recovered the downregulated activity of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway by competitive binding to the LRP5/6-sclerostin complex. Overall, this study showed that the optimized structure-based drug design was a promising approach for the development of small-molecule inhibitors of the LRP5/6-sclerostin interaction. A novel scaffold offered considerable insights into the structural basis for binding to LRP5/6 and disruption of the sclerostin-mediated inhibition of Wnt signaling.