Metal resistance in yeast mediated by the expression of a maize 20S proteasome alpha subunit

A novel 72 nt small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) called U87 was found in rat liver cells. This RNA possesses the features of C/D box snoRNA family: boxes C, D', C', D, and 11 nt antisense element complementary to 28S ribosomal RNA (rRNA). The vast majority of C/D box snoRNAs direct site-specific 2'-O-ribose methylation of rRNAs. U87 RNA is suggested to be involved in 2'-O-methylation of a G(3468) residue in 28S rRNA. U87 RNA was detected in different mammalian species with slight length variability. Rat and mouse U87 RNA gene was characterized. Unlike the majority of C/D box snoRNAs U87 RNA lacks the terminal stem required for snoRNA processing. However, U87 gene is flanked by 7 bp inverted repeats potentially able to form a terminal stem in U87 RNA precursor.     

Identification of a new ribose methylation in the 18S rRNA of S. cerevisiae

Methylation of ribose sugars at the 2′-OH group is one of the major chemical modifications in rRNA, and is catalyzed by snoRNA directed C/D box snoRNPs. Previous biochemical and computational analyses of the C/D box snoRNAs have identified and mapped a large number of 2′-OH ribose methylations in rRNAs. In the present study, we systematically analyzed ribose methylations of 18S rRNA in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, using mung bean nuclease protection assay and RP-HPLC. Unexpectedly, we identified a hitherto unknown ribose methylation at position G562 in the helix 18 of 5′ central domain of yeast 18S rRNA. Furthermore, we identified snR40 as being responsible to guide snoRNP complex to catalyze G562 ribose methylation, which makes it only second snoRNA known so far to target three ribose methylation sites: Gm562, Gm1271 in 18S rRNA, and Um898 in 25S rRNA. Our sequence and mutational analysis of snR40 revealed that snR40 uses the same D′ box and methylation guide sequence for both Gm562 and Gm1271 methylation. With the identification of Gm562 and its corresponding snoRNA, complete set of ribose methylations of 18S rRNA and their corresponding snoRNAs have finally been established opening great prospects to understand the physiological function of these modifications.     

Functional redundancy of Spb1p and a snR52-dependent mechanism for the 2'-O-ribose methylation of a conserved rRNA position in yeast

In yeast, guide snoRNAs have been assigned to 51 of the 55 rRNA ribose methylation sites. LSU-Um2918 is one of the four remaining positions. This residue is highly conserved and located in the peptidyl transferase center of the ribosome. The equivalent position on the E. coli 23S rRNA is methylated by FtsJ/RrmJ which has three yeast homologs: Spb1, involved in biogenesis of LSU; Trm7, a tRNA methyltransferase; and Mrm2, a mitochondrial 21S rRNA methyltransferase. We demonstrate that a point mutation in the Ado-Met binding site of Spb1p affects cell growth but does not abolish methylation of U2918. When this mutation is combined with disruption of snR52 (a snoRNA C/D), cell growth is severely impaired and U2918 is no longer methylated. In vitro, Spb1p is able to methylate U2918 on 60S subunits. Our results reveal the importance of this methylation for which two mechanisms coexist: a site-specific methyltransferase (Spb1p) and a snoRNA-dependent mechanism.     

Fibrillarin genes encode both a conserved nucleolar protein and a novel small nucleolar RNA involved in ribosomal RNA methylation in Arabidopsis thaliana

Fibrillarin is a key nucleolar protein in eukaryotes which associates with box C/D small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) directing 2'-O-ribose methylation of the rRNA. In this study we describe two genes in Arabidopsis thaliana, AtFib1 and AtFib2, encoding nearly identical proteins conserved with eukaryotic fibrillarins. We demonstrate that AtFib1 and AtFib2 proteins are functional homologs of the yeast Nop1p (fibrillarin) and can rescue a yeast NOP1-null mutant strain. Surprisingly, for the first time in plants, we identified two isoforms of a novel box C/D snoRNA, U60.1f and U60.2f, nested in the fifth intron of AtFib1 and AtFib2. Interestingly after gene duplication the host intronic sequences completely diverged, but the snoRNA was conserved, even in other crucifer fibrillarin genes. We show that the U60f snoRNAs accumulate in seedlings and that their targeted residue on the 25 S rRNA is methylated. Our data reveal that the three modes of expression of snoRNAs, single, polycistronic, and intronic, exist in plants and suggest that the mechanisms directing rRNA methylation, dependent on fibrillarin and box C/D snoRNAs, are evolutionarily conserved in plants.     

Conserved boxes C and D are essential nucleolar localization elements of U14 and U8 snoRNAs.

Sequences necessary for nucleolar targeting were identified in Box C/D small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) by fluorescence microscopy. Nucleolar preparations were examined after injecting fluorescein-labelled wild-type and mutated U14 or U8 snoRNA into Xenopus oocyte nuclei. Regions in U14 snoRNA that are complementary to 18S rRNA and necessary for rRNA processing and methylation are not required for nucleolar localization. Truncated U14 molecules containing Boxes C and D with or without the terminal stem localized efficiently. Nucleolar localization was abolished upon mutating just one or two nucleotides within Boxes C and D. Moreover, the spatial position of Boxes C or D in the molecule is essential. Mutations in Box C/D of U8 snoRNA also impaired nucleolar localization, suggesting the general importance of Boxes C and D as nucleolar localization sequences for Box C/D snoRNAs. U14 snoRNA is shown to be required for 18S rRNA production in vertebrates.     

Functional importance of individual rRNA 2'-O-ribose methylations revealed by high-resolution phenotyping

Ribosomal RNAs contain numerous modifications at specific nucleotides. Despite their evolutionary conservation, the functional role of individual 2'-O-ribose methylations in rRNA is not known. A distinct family of small nucleolar RNAs, box C/D snoRNAs, guides the methylating complex to specific rRNA sites. Using a high-resolution phenotyping approach, we characterized 20 box C/D snoRNA gene deletions for altered growth dynamics under a wide array of environmental perturbations, encompassing intraribosomal antibiotics, inhibitors of specific cellular features, as well as general stressors. Ribosome-specific antibiotics generated phenotypes indicating different and long-ranging structural effects of rRNA methylations on the ribosome. For all studied box C/D snoRNA mutants we uncovered phenotypes to extraribosomal growth inhibitors, most frequently reflected in alteration in growth lag (adaptation time). A number of strains were highly pleiotropic and displayed a great number of sensitive phenotypes, e.g., deletion mutants of snR70 and snR71, which both have clear human homologues, and deletion mutants of snR65 and snR68. Our data indicate that individual rRNA ribose methylations can play either distinct or general roles in the workings of the ribosome.     

Nucleolar localization elements in U8 snoRNA differ from sequences required for rRNA processing.

U8 small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) is essential for metazoan ribosomal RNA (rRNA) processing in nucleoli. The sequences and structural features in Xenopus U8 snoRNA that are required for its nucleolar localization were analyzed. Fluorescein-labeled U8 snoRNA was injected into Xenopus oocyte nuclei, and fluorescence microscopy of nucleolar preparations revealed that wild-type Xenopus U8 snoRNA localized to nucleoli, regardless of the presence or nature of the 5' cap on the injected U8 snoRNA. Nucleolar localization was observed when loops or stems in the 5' portion of U8 that are critical for U8 snoRNA function in rRNA processing were mutated. Therefore, sites of interaction in U8 snoRNA that potentially tether it to pre-rRNA are not essential for nucleolar localization of U8. Boxes C and D are known to be nucleolar localization elements (NoLEs) for U8 snoRNA and other snoRNAs of the Box C/D family. However, the spatial relationship of Box C to Box D was not crucial for U8 nucleolar localization, as demonstrated here by deletion of sequences in the two stems that separate them. These U8 mutants can localize to nucleoli and function in rRNA processing as well. The single-stranded Cup region in U8, adjacent to evolutionarily conserved Box C, functions as a NoLE in addition to Boxes C and D. Cup is unique to U8 snoRNA and may help bind putative protein(s) needed for nucleolar localization. Alternatively, Cup may help to retain U8 snoRNA within the nucleolus.     

A novel snoRNA can direct site-specific 2'-O-ribose methylation of snRNAs in Oryza sativa

Small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) are a kind of noncoding RNAs, and the vast majority of snoRNAs are involved in site-specific modifications of rRNAs. A novel box C/D snoRNA called snoR124 was found inOryza sativa, and it can direct 2'-O-ribose methylation of spliceosomal small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). The snoRNA has two antisense elements, and the results of primer extensions at different dNTP concentrations provide evidence that snoR124 guide 2'-O-methylations of the C76 residue in the U4 snRNA and the T91 residue in the U5 snRNA. In addition, this snoRNA is located in a snoRNA gene cluster with another 7 snoRNAs which are identified to direct ribose methylations in rRNAs. This is consistent with the opinion that the snoRNA gene organization in plant is mainly gene cluster. The snoR124 is the first example of a snoRNA that directs modifications of RNAs other than rRNAs in plant; it will avail to get more insights into the function of snoRNAs in plant.     

The U14 snoRNA is required for 2'-O-methylation of the pre-18S rRNA in Xenopus oocytes.

We have studied the role of the U14 small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) in pre-rRNA methylation and processing in Xenopus oocytes. Depletion of U14 in Xenopus oocytes was achieved by co-injecting two nonoverlapping antisense oligonucleotides. Focusing on the earliest precursor, depletion experiments revealed that the U14 snoRNA is essential for 2'-O-ribose methylation at nt 427 of the 18S rRNA. Injection of U14-depleted oocytes with specific U14 mutant snoRNAs indicated that conserved domain B, but not domain A, of U14 is required for the methylation reaction. When the effect of U14 on pre-rRNA processing is assayed, we find only modest effects on 18S rRNA levels, and no effect on the type or accumulation of 18S precursors, suggesting a role for U14 in a step in ribosome biogenesis other than cleavage of the pre-rRNA. Xenopus U14 is, therefore, a Box C/D fibrillarin-associated snoRNA that is required for site-specific 2'-O-ribose methylation of pre-rRNA.     

Fibrillarin-associated box C/D small nucleolar RNAs in Trypanosoma brucei. Sequence conservation and implications for 2'-O-ribose methylation of rRNA

We report the identification of 17 box C/D fibrillarin-associated small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) from the ancient eukaryote, Trypanosoma brucei. To systematically isolate and characterize these snoRNAs, the T. brucei cDNA for the box C/D snoRNA common protein, fibrillarin, was cloned and polyclonal antibodies to the recombinant fibrillarin protein were generated in rabbits. Immunoprecipitations from T. brucei extracts with the anti-fibrillarin antibodies indicated that this trypanosomatid has at least 30 fibrillarin-associated snoRNAs. We have sequenced seventeen of them and designated them TBR for T. brucei RNA 1-17. All of them bear conserved box C, D, C', and D' elements, a hallmark of fibrillarin-associated snoRNAs in eukaryotes. Fourteen of them are novel T. brucei snoRNAs. Fifteen bear potential guide regions to mature rRNAs suggesting that they are involved in 2'-O-ribose methylation. Indeed, eight ribose methylations have been mapped in the rRNA at sites predicted by the snoRNA sequences. Comparative genomics indicates that six of the seventeen are the first trypanosome homologs of known yeast and vertebrate methylation guide snoRNAs. Our results indicate that T. brucei has many fibrillarin-associated box C/D snoRNAs with roles in 2'-O-ribose methylation of rRNA and that the mechanism for targeting the nucleotide to be methylated at the fifth nucleotide upstream of box D or D' originated in early eukaryotes.     

A novel snoRNA gene cluster in yeast is transcribed as polycistronic pre-snoRNAs

Small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) play an important role in eukaryotic rRNA biogenesis. By combination of a computer search of EMBL database and experimental procedure, a novel snoRNA coding sequence (Z8) was screened out and characterized from yeastSaccharomyces cerevisiue genome. Z8 snoRNA gene codes a boxC/D antisense snoRNA which guides, deduced from structure analysis, the 2′-O-ribose methylation at U₂₄₂₁ of 25S rRNA. After disruption of Z8 snoRNA gene, the methylation at corresponding site was abolished, but no gmwth delay was observed in various cultural temperatures. Z8 DNA is the first gene of a gene cluster consisting of three cognate snoRNA genes which are located on an intergenic region of chromosome XIII. This gene cluster is co-transcribed as a polycistronic precursor from a + 247 bp U snoRNA gene promoter, followed by processing to release individual snoRNAs, representing a new expression pattern of snoRNA genes.     

Plant snoRNA database

The Plant snoRNA database (http://www.scri.sari.ac.uk/plant_snoRNA/) provides information on small nucleolar RNAs from Arabidopsis and eighteen other plant species. Information includes sequences, expression data, methylation and pseudouridylation target modification sites, initial gene organization (polycistronic, single gene and intronic) and the number of gene variants. The Arabidopsis information is divided into box C/D and box H/ACA snoRNAs, and within each of these groups, by target sites in rRNA, snRNA or unknown. Alignments of orthologous genes and gene variants from different plant species are available for many snoRNA genes. Plant snoRNA genes have been given a standard nomenclature, designed wherever possible, to provide a consistent identity with yeast and human orthologues.     

A novel snoRNA gene cluster in yeast is transcribed as polycistronic pre-snoRNAs

Small nueleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) play an important role in eukaryotic rRNA biogenesis. By combination of a computer search of EMBL database and experimental procedure, a novel snoRNA coding sequence (Z8) was screened out and characterized from yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome. Z8 snoRNA gene codes a boxC/D antisonse snoRNA which guides, deduced from structure analysis, the 2'-O-ribose methylation at U_(2421) of 25S rRNA. After disruption of Z8 snoRNA gene, the methylation at corresponding site was abolished, but no growth delay was observed in various cultural temperatures. Z8 DNA is the first gene of a gene cluster consisting of three cognate snoRNA genes which are located on an intergenie region of chromosome ⅩⅢ. This gene cluster is co-transcribed as a pelycistronic precursor from a 247 bp U snoRNA gene promoter, followed by processing to release individual snoRNAs, representing a new expression pattern of snoRNA genes.